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The document provides an overview of major developments during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, including: 1) Charlemagne unified much of Western Europe under the Franks and promoted the conversion of Europe to Christianity. Monasteries established schools and helped preserve knowledge through illuminated manuscripts like the Book of Kells. 2) Population growth led to agricultural innovations like the heavy plow pulled by horses, crop rotation, new tools, watermills, and the clearing of more land for farming. This was followed by expansion, the Crusades, and the growth of trade and cities. 3) Major figures like Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, Boyle, Newton, and others helped establish the foundations of modern science through observations,
