Genetics is the study of heredity and variation in living organisms. The key concepts are that genes contain DNA sequences that encode specific proteins, and genes are passed from parents to offspring. There are two main areas of genetics - classical genetics which studies inheritance patterns and molecular genetics which examines the structure and function of genes. Some important applications of genetics include improving agriculture, treating genetic diseases, conservation efforts, and genetic engineering. The history of genetics began with Mendel's experiments in the 1860s, was rediscovered in 1900, and has since involved many important discoveries that helped elucidate DNA structure and genetic mechanisms.
This presentation is carrying all summary about the history of genetics that who discover genes which scientist work on it and there work summary of all these things is given here and it is very helpful for the students of genetics whether they are students of plant genetics or animals.
This presentation is carrying all summary about the history of genetics that who discover genes which scientist work on it and there work summary of all these things is given here and it is very helpful for the students of genetics whether they are students of plant genetics or animals.
BIO 106
Lecture 10
Quantitative Inheritance
A. Inheritance of Quantitative Characters
1. Multiple Genes
2. Number of Genes in polygene Systems
3. Regression to the Mean
4. Effects of Dominance and Gene Interactions
5. Effects of Genes in Multiplying Effects
B. Analysis of Quantitative Characteristics
C. Components of Phenotypic Variance
D. Heredity
1. Heritability in the Narrow Sense
2. Heritability in the Broad Sense
Introduction :
Mendel and subsequent workers assumed that a character was governed by a single gene.
But it was later discovered that many characters in almost all the organisms are governed by two or more genes. Such gene affect the development of concerned characters in various ways.
The phenomenon of two or more gene affecting the expression of each other in various ways in the development of a single character of on organism is known as gene interaction.
This PPT consists of 15 slides only explaining Pleiotropy. This is a phenomenon when one gene controls more than one trait , the traits may be related .Generally one gene's product acts for many reactions and so can affect more than one trait. Examples can be seen in pea Coloured flower and pigmentation in leaf axil, frizzle trait in chicken, fur colour and deafness in cats,Human pleiotropic traits are PKU,Sickle cell Anaemia. HOsyndrome , p53 gene etc
According to Hardy (England,1908) and Weinberg (Germany,1909), gene and genotype frequency of a Mendelian population remain constant generation after generation unless there is selection,mutation,migration or random drift.
BIO 106
Lecture 10
Quantitative Inheritance
A. Inheritance of Quantitative Characters
1. Multiple Genes
2. Number of Genes in polygene Systems
3. Regression to the Mean
4. Effects of Dominance and Gene Interactions
5. Effects of Genes in Multiplying Effects
B. Analysis of Quantitative Characteristics
C. Components of Phenotypic Variance
D. Heredity
1. Heritability in the Narrow Sense
2. Heritability in the Broad Sense
Introduction :
Mendel and subsequent workers assumed that a character was governed by a single gene.
But it was later discovered that many characters in almost all the organisms are governed by two or more genes. Such gene affect the development of concerned characters in various ways.
The phenomenon of two or more gene affecting the expression of each other in various ways in the development of a single character of on organism is known as gene interaction.
This PPT consists of 15 slides only explaining Pleiotropy. This is a phenomenon when one gene controls more than one trait , the traits may be related .Generally one gene's product acts for many reactions and so can affect more than one trait. Examples can be seen in pea Coloured flower and pigmentation in leaf axil, frizzle trait in chicken, fur colour and deafness in cats,Human pleiotropic traits are PKU,Sickle cell Anaemia. HOsyndrome , p53 gene etc
According to Hardy (England,1908) and Weinberg (Germany,1909), gene and genotype frequency of a Mendelian population remain constant generation after generation unless there is selection,mutation,migration or random drift.
Some references are coming from the internet, i just copied it.. credits to the owner. some information are not mine as well as the slide i just download it from the internet. My report in my Masters.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
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Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
2. Introduction
The study of transfer of genes from parent to offsprings.
GENES: A specific sequence of nucleotides that encode specific
proteins.
Etymology: Term was coined by William Bateson in 1905 and first used
by him in 1906 in ICG (International conference on Genetics).
Phrase: To Code For is used that means every gene contain specific
information about proteins. The concept one gene, one protein is also
used.
3. AREAS OF GENETIC :
Genetics is divided into 2 main areas :
(A)Classical Genetics: Techniques and methodologies used in genetics are
called classical genetics.
1. Behavioral : The study of influence of varying genetics on animal behavior.
2. Clinical : field of genetics to diagnose and treat and counsel of genetic disorders.
3. Molecular : It focus on structure of gene.
4. Population and Ecological : Subfields of classical genetics.
5. Genomics: Knowledge of large scale of genetic patterns.
6. Genetic Engineering: Manipulation of genes.
(A)Mendelian Genetics: It governs the transfer of heredity characters
from parent to offspring.
This based of Gregor Mendel’s work published in 1865-66. This work was re-discovered by Thomas Hunt Morgan in
1900. He integrated chromosome theory of inheritance i.e core of classical genetics.
4. Scope/Applications of Genetics
Genetics has scope/role in following fields:
1.Genetics as basis of Biological sciences:
Provide foundation for biological studies. Laws of inheritance help us
to understand the principles of embryology, population, taxonomy,
evolution and ecology.
2.Role of genetics in food production:
Rules of genetics help to introduce new verities of plants and livestock.
3.Disease control:
Gene therapy help to cure many genetics based diseases.
4.Conservation of Wild life:
Conservation of wild life can be achieved in one way by conserving the
germplasm of endangered species.
5.Genetic Engineering/Biotechnology:
Genetic Engineering has many applications including
a. Development of transgenic crops
b. Gene Therapy
c. Improvement in Food production
d. Control of Genetic Diseases
5. e. Gene mapping
6.Behavioral Genetics:
It studies the influence of varying genetics on animal behavior.
7.Clinical Genetics:
There are several genetic disorder exist physicians are trained to diagnose and treat .
8.Molecular Genetics:
It focus on structure and function of gene.
9.Population and Ecological Genetics:
Population and ecological genetics are closely related subfields of genetics. Population
genetics is the study of distribution and change in allele.
10.Genomics:
It allows the study of large scale genetic pattern i.e genomic sequence
6. History of Genetics
1.Mendel’s Law
• G. Mendel was an Austrian Monk
• Studied Pea plants (Tested some 28000 Plants) b/w 1856-1863
• 2 Observations Published as “Experiment of hybridization” in 1866
2.Rediscovery of Mendel’s Law
• Mendel’s work primarily neglected
• In 1900 Mendel’s work was rediscovered by 3 European scientists i.e
Hugo de Varies, Carl Correns and Erich Von Tschermak.
7. 3.Role of William Bateson
There were two objection on Mendel’s work
1. Heredity is discontinuous
2. Biologists were not sure about the application of Law on all species
W. Bateson was most active promotor of Mendel’s work in Europe. He
coin many terms related to genetics including genetics, genes and alleles
4. Work of R.A Fisher
R.A Fisher describe that Mendelian factors (genes) were involved for
individual traits
5. Thomas Hunt Morgan (Father of Classical Genetics)
Proposed Chromosomes theory of inheritance
8. Timeline of Notable Discoveries
• 1859 Origin of species by C. Darwin
• 1865 Experiment on Plant Hybridization by G. Mendel
• 1903 Chromosomes Discovered
• 1906 Term Genetics Coined by W. Bateson
• 1913 Genetic map by Alfred Sturtevant
• 1918 R.A Fisher shows correlation traits with factors (genes)
• 1927 Physical changes in chromosomes named as “mutation”
• 1928 Griffith Experiment on bacteria
• 1931 Crossing over was explained by Barbara McClintock
9. • 1941 Tatum and Beadle shows that genes are responsible for protein
synthesis
• 1944 Avery, McLeod and McCarty isolate DNA
• 1950 Chargaff Rule A=T and C=G
Transposons (Jumping Genes) discovered by Barbara
McClintock
• 1952 Hershey-Chase experiment prove phages contain DNA as their
genetic information
• 1953 DNA is double helical structure proved by two young scientists
Watson and Crick
• 1956 Human have 46 Chromosomes proved by Jo Hin Tjio Albert
Leaven
• 1958 DNA is semiconservative model proved by Measelson-Stahl
10. • 1961 Genetic code arranged in triplet (Nirenberg and P.Leder)
• 1964 Howard Temim proves Watson central dogma is not always
true.
• 1970 Restriction enzyme discovered (Werner Arber)
• 1977 DNA sequence was determined by F. Sanger
• 1983 Karry B. Mullis discover PCR
• 1985 Alec Jeffreys discover DNA finger printing
• 1989 Huaman genome sequenced by F. Collins and Lap-Chee Tsui
11. • 1995 Genome of H. influenza was sequenced
• 1996 yeast genome was sequenced
• 1998 Round worm genome was sequenced
• 2001 Human Genome was released by Human Genome project and
Celera Genomics simultaneously
• 2003 Successful completion of human genome 99% accuracy
• 2006 Marcus Pembrey and olov Bygren Sex-specific , male line
transgeneratonal response. (epigenetics- heritable changes in gene
expression)
