The document summarizes the history of ancient Rome from 753 BC to AD 476. It describes Rome's transition from kingdom to republic as it expanded across the Italian peninsula and dominated the Mediterranean. This was followed by the establishment of the Roman Empire under Augustus Caesar after the civil wars weakened the republic. The empire reached its greatest extent in the 2nd century AD but gradually declined as the frontier was breached by invasions and the economy was disrupted. By the 5th century, the western half of the empire had fractured into smaller barbarian kingdoms.

1. Chapters 5 & 6

3.  753-509 B.C. E. Struggle to dominate other tribes on the Apennine Peninsula
 509 B.C.E. to 31 B.C.E. establishment of Roman Republic and domination of the
Mediterranean Sea and Europe
 31 B.C. E. to A.D. 476 Roman Empire

4.  Romans had a sense of history
 What could they do with Greek Culture and Roman might?
 Greeks: virtuous citizenship focused on city-state
 Hellenization: cosmopoli left Greeks at a loss to define virtue
 Romans: might makes right, Stoicism and Epicureanism
 Romans: virtue is in the “doing”

5.  Barbarian invasions?
 Did it just get too big?
 Disparity between rich and poor?
 Christianity?

6.  Are there lessons to be learned?
 Titus Livius, or Livy (59 B.C.-A.D. 17) admitted, “The study of history is the
best medicine for a sick mind; for in history you have a record of the infinite
variety of human experience plainly set out for all to see; and in that record
you can find yourself and your country both examples and warnings; fine
things to take as models, base things rotten through and through, to avoid."
 Politicians, Preachers, Political philosophers often see Rome’s decline as a
warning for every great civilization that has come after.

7.  Livy was also careful to add that Roman legends depicted men and women
not as they were, but as they ought to be.
 History for Livy is a moral story to instill common values

8.  750 B.C.E.
 Greek colonies in Southern Italy numbered about 50
 Etruscan Confederacy dominated Northern Italy (Tuscany today)
 Origins unknown
 Not Indo-European
 Similarities with Semitic peoples
 Perhaps Hittite origins

9.  Etruscan alphabet (adapted from Greeks)
 Fasces
 Toga
 Arch
 Gladiatorial contests

10. Fasces
 Surprise

11.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WZEJ4OJTgg8
 What happened to the Etruscans?
 Rather than simply conquer these people, the Romans assimilated them into the
Roman world.
 Livy “Events before Rome was born have come down to us in old tales with more of
the charm of poetry than of sound historical record, and such traditions I propose
neither to affirm nor refute.“
 Insight into Romulus and Remus?
 Virgil’s Aeneid

12. He was to be ruler of Italy,
Potential empire, armorer of war;
To father men from Teucer's noble blood
And bring the whole world under law's domin

14. 509 B.C.E. -31 B.C.E.

15.  Replaced the King with two consuls
 Gave the Roman Senate control over public funds
 One consul could veto the other consul’s decrees
 In times of grave emergency the Senate could appoint a dictator who would
rule for 6 months.

17.  Patricians = less than 10% of Rome’s population
 Defined in Roman Constitution as legally and socially superior to everybody else
 Perhaps old Etruscan families
 Plebeians= everybody else
 Included everybody from landless peasant to wealthy merchants
 Issue of Legality
 Constitution: Senate is only Patrician, Senate voted first
 Assembly of Centuries (comitia centuriata), conducted annual elections of consuls,
composed of all members of the army. In this assembly the wealthier citizen voted
first with profound influence on voting.
 Assembly of Tribes (comitia tributa), contained all citizens; approved or rejected laws
and decided issues of war and peace.

18.  494 B.C. E., plebeians threatened to set up their own independent state
 Patricians retained powers
 Plebeians gained two representatives: the Tribunes (later there were ten
tribunes).
 absolute veto power;
 could not be called to account for their actions;
 could not be harmed in any way or even touched.
 A tribune could not veto military commanders or dictators.
 450 B.C.E. Law of the Twelve Tables
 codes specifying civic matters, crimes and the relations among citizens and family
members.

19.  445 B.C., plebeians won the right to inter-marry with the patricians (the Lex
Canuleia).
 allowed wealthy plebeians to become patricians themselves
 Wealthy could be elected to high positions within the Assembly or the Senate.
 367 B.C.,
 one consul every year must be a plebeian,
 law restricted amount of land held by any citizen.
 287 B.C.,
 decisions of the Assembly of Tribes binding on the whole state without action by
any other body
 Why did the Struggle of the Orders not lead to Civil War?
 Who got assimilated?

20.  493 B.C., Romans established the Latin League to protect themselves from
rival neighbors such as the Etruscans.
 396 B.C.E. Rome attacked the last Etruscan holdout: Veii and gave them
privileges of Romans
 Precedent: conquered communities were assimilated and made partners with
Rome
 Some communities were granted full Roman citizenship.
 Some communities granted citizenship but could not vote in the Assembly
 Some communities received Rome's support in the event of an invasion.
 Roman system of "confederating" states vs. Greek idea of domination and
submission.
 Which was more pragmatic and successful?

21.  Intermediate Rights between full citizenship and non-citizen status
 Commercium allowed Latins to own land in any of the Latin cities and to
make legally enforceable contracts with their citizens.
 Connubium permitted them to make a lawful marriage with a resident of any
other Latin city.
 Lus migrationis gave people with Latin status the capacity to acquire
citizenship of another Latin state simply by taking up permanent residence
there.

22.  Ancestor Worship: primary duty to honor one’s ancestors by his
conduct and the greatest honor was to sacrifice oneself for
Rome.
 Roman Priests
 Guardians of sacred traditions.
 Prominent aristocrats rotated in and out of the priestly office while also
serving as leaders of the Roman state.
 Thus religion and politics were officially sanctioned as part of the state.
 Roman polytheism: as long as the traditional gods were
honored, new gods could be added and worshipped as well

23.  No known texts—mostly reliefs.
Practiced primarily by Roman Soldiers.
 7 Levels
 Corax, Corux or Corvex (raven or crow)
beaker
 Nymphus, Nymphobus (male bride) lamp,
bell, veil, circlet/crown
 Miles (soldier) pouch, helmet, lance,
drum, belt, breast plate
 Miles (soldier) pouch, helmet, lance,
drum, belt, breast plate
 Perses (Persian)
 Heliodromus (sun-runner) torch,
 Pater (father)

24.  Morality
 Patriotism
 Duty
 Masculine self-control
 Respect for authority and tradition
 Roman Virtues
 Bravery
 Honor
 Self-discipline
 Loyalty to country and family

25.  By 265 B.C.E. Romans controlled most of the Apennine Peninsula
 Was further expansion deliberate, necessary or accidental?

26.  264 B.C.E. Punic Wars begin

27.  Carthage expands into Messina, an important port
in Sicily near the mainland

28.  Phoenician, Numidian and Libyan peoples,
 Major city was Carthage (in modern day Tunisia)
 Carthage relied heavily, though not exclusively, on foreign mercenaries—
Celts and Iberians
 Light Cavalry: a significant part of it was composed of Numidian contingents
and North African elephant corps
 The riders of these elephants were armed with a spike and hammer to kill the
elephants in case they charged toward their own army.
 The navy offered a stable profession and financial security for its sailors
 The trade of Carthaginian merchantmen was by land across the Sahara
 And by sea throughout the Mediterranean and far into the Atlantic to the tin-rich
islands of Britain and to West Africa.

29.  Captured Phoenician ship and copied its design
 Created a corvus device for boarding ships

30.  23 year war
 Carthage ceded Sicily to Rome
 Carthage paid large indemnity (money to pay for the war)
 Many Romans killed.
 Conservative Senators: Rome should have invaded Carthage rather than agree to a
peace treaty

33.  218 B.C.E. Rome declared war on Carthage
 Considered expansion by Carthage into Iberian Peninsula (Spain) as a commercial
and military threat
 2nd Punic War lasted 16 years

34.  involved the mobilization of 60,000 to 100,000 troops
 Training a war-elephant corps
 all of which had to be provisioned along the way
 Crossed the Alps
 2nd Punic War was a world war in the sense that it involved about
three-quarters of the population of the entire Punic-Greco-Roman
world and few people living in the Mediterranean were able to
escape it.
 Virtually every family in Rome lost at least one member

36.  Estimates: 50,000-70,000 Romans were killed or captured
 Among the dead
 the Roman Consul Lucius Aurelius Paulus,
 29 out of 48 military tribunes
 80 Senators (about 30% of the Senate)
 one of the bloodiest battles in all of human history (in terms of the number of
lives lost within a single day)

37.  Hannibal recalled to Carthage without marching on Rome
 scarcity of supplies, money, manpower?
 political components?
 Did Carthage think Rome would sue for peace?
 Rome kept on fighting
 201 B.C.E. Publius Cornelius Scipio invaded North Africa and defeated Hannibal at
Zama

38.  Carthage required to abandon all its possessions except city of Carthage
 war indemnity 3X that of the 1st Punic War
 Estimate: 20,000 talents of silver(one talent= 71 pounds) over 50 years
 In the 50 years between the 2nd and 3rd Punic wars:
 Rome invaded and conquered
 former Macedonian empire
 Palestine
 Hispania

39.  By 151 B.C.E. Carthage repaid its war debt to Rome
 Carthage thought treaty was cancelled
 Rome decided on War
 needed grain and area around Carthage was fertile
 Romans did not forget their losses at Battle of Cannae
 149 B.C.E. war with Carthage again
 Demanded that Carthage hand over all weapons and move 10 miles inland
 Siege of Carthage:
 approximately 50,000 people died of starvation
 Six day battle
 Rome made all inhabitants slaves and burned Carthage for 17 days

41.  Millions of slaves from Carthaginian and Macedonian territories
 Most slaves were agricultural workers
 Most economical use: work as hard as possible feed as little as possible, when
one dies buy another very cheap because market was glutted
 Extensive slave population:
 enabled large estates owned by wealthy aristocracy to force small
farmers to sell their land because they could not compete with the large
agribusinesses
 Plantation style economy
 Former farmers became urban population of Rome
 Under-employment of free labor: slaves could do it more
cheaply
 Created a permanent urban under-class and political
instability
 Rome failed to develop an industrial base that
would have created jobs and opportunity for
former farmers

42.  Slave uprisings
 134 B.C.E. 70,000 slaves revolt in Sicily
 104 B.C.E. 2nd slave uprising in Sicily
 73-71 B.C.E. Spartacus Rebellion
 Trained to be a gladiator: certain death
 Escaped to Mount Vesuvius with a host of fugitive slaves
 Overran much of Southern Italy
 6,000 slaves captured during the final battle were crucified along
the road between Capua and Rome (150 miles)

43.  Who is a “barbarian”
 Greeks: a barbarian is “anyone who is not Greek”
 Romans:
 “Barbarian” = anyone who did not live within the Roman empire and
had no manners
 “Barbar”: a Sanskrit word than means “dirty one” generally referring to a
person who uses the same hand to eat as they use to wipe themselves after
going to the bathroom
 Throughout history the term “Barbarian” generally implies a person who lives
outside of the boundaries of a particular territory/kingdom
 The Other who is “not like us”

44.  Hispania: Iberian Peninsula and Western France
 Cimbrians: Jutland Peninsula (modern Denmark)
 Britannia (England) and Caledonia (Scotland)
 Central Europe (East of Iberia)
 Celts
 Teutonnes/Germans
 Gaul
 Goths

45. 31 B.C.E. – A.D. 476

47.  Marius:
 a general in Roman Army
 elected as Consul by Plebian party
 reelected six times from 107 B.C.E. to 86 B.C.E.
 eliminated the property qualification required to be a Roman soldier
 Provided opportunity for urban poor to gain political access through the military
 Sulla :
 appointed dictator in 86 B.C.E. by the Senate
 curtailed the power of the Tribunes (Plebian leaders)
 assassinated any Senator who opposed him
 Julius Caesar
 Marius’s nephew
 took his legions to the frontier to fight the Barbarians
 political power and enrichment
 Hero of soldiers
 Demonized by Senators

48.  Pompey: General who conquered Syria and Palestine
 Julius Caesar: fought the Barbarians in Gaul and Britannia
 Crassus: richest man in Rome, defeated Spartacus in the
Battle of Siler River

50.  52 B.C.E. : mob riots in Rome
 Senate feared Caesar’s popularity among the Plebian class
 Convinced Pompey to declare Caesar who was in Gaul “an enemy of the state”
 49 B.C.E. Caesar marched on Rome and Pompey fled to Syria
 Pompey defeated at Battle of Pharsalus in Greece and murdered by Caesar’s
supporters

51.  Affair with Cleopatra left her pregnant with Caesar’s
son
 Invaded Anatolia and victory was so swift that he
declared “Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered)”
 46 B.C.E. Senate named Caesar dictator for 10
years
 44 B.C.E. named dictator for life
 Authority to make war and peace

52. Caesar assassinated on March 15 “The Ides of
March”
Conspiracy of Senators who wanted to return to
Republic (power in hands of Aristocracy)
 included former supporter Brutus (some argue Marc Antony)
 Brutus committed suicide following his defeat by Octavian
(Caesar’s nephew) at the Battle of Philippi.
 Marc Antony committed suicide after being defeated by
Octavian at the Battle of Actium

54. The Principate 27 B.C.E. –
187 C.E.

55.  Adopted by Julius Caesar at age 18 as his heir
 Joined with Marc Antony and Lepidus to secure his succession
 Defeated all competitors to become Emperor

56.  Octavian returned from his victory at Actium and declared
peace was restored
 Granted titles of Imperator (victorious general) and Augustus
(worthy of honor) by the Senate
 Octavian preferred title princeps (first citizen)
 PAX ROMANA: Relative peace i.e. no major wars

57.  New coinage
 Introduced public services
 Reorganized the army
 Allowed cities and provinces rights of self-government

58.  Senate had no power
 Augustus controlled the army
 Reforms of traditional civic values were superficial
 Rebuilt temples
 Prohibited Romans from worshipping foreign gods
 Fined citizens who failed to marry
 Required widows to marry within 2 years
 Punished adultery (by women)
 Made divorce more difficult
 Augustus himself had many affairs
 His daughter Julia had so many affairs that he was forced to banish her
 Aristocrats still controlled large farming estates
 Underemployment remained a serious problem
 No industrial development

59.  Lasted from 28 B.C.E. to 180 C.E.
 Few powerful external enemies
 Mediterranean Sea controlled by one military power: Rome
 Land frontiers/borders– Scotland to Persia
 Exceptions to peace were rebellions by Britannia and Hebrews.
 Assimilation of residents along the frontier into the common cultural and
political life of Rome

60.  Though we hurry, we merely crawl;
We're blocked by a surging mass ahead,
a pushing wall
Of people behind. A man jabs me,
elbowing through, one socks
A chair pole against me, one cracks my
skull with a beam, one knocks
A wine cask against my ear. My legs are
caked with splashing
Mud, from all sides the weight of
enormous feet comes smashing
On mine, and a soldier stamps his
hobnails through to my sole.

61.  Look at other things, the various dangers
of nighttime.
How high it is to the cornice that
breaks, and a chunk beats my brains out,
Or some slob heaves a jar, broken or
cracked from a window.
Bang! It comes down with a crash and
proves its weight on the sidewalk.
You are a thoughtless fool, unmindful of
sudden disaster,
If you don't make your will before you
go out to have dinner.
There are as many deaths in the night as
there are open windows
Where you pass by, if you're wise, you
will pray, in your wretched devotions.
People may be content with no more
than emptying slop jars.

62. …with no vote to sell, their
motto is "couldn't care less,"
Time was when their plebiscite
elected generals, heads of
state, commanders of legions:
but now they've pulled in their
horns, there's only two things
than concern them: BREAD and
CIRCUSES. –Juvenal

63.  Owned property
 Invested in commercial ventures
 Made public contributions to particular causes
 Priestesses & civic patrons
 NO public office
 Nominally under authority of nearest male relative (perpetual minority)
 Educated to be accomplished wives and mothers
 Certain sexual freedom

64.  Little is known
 Early marriage
 Husband’s helpers
 Engaged in shop keeping
 Motherhood 3-4 children
 Life expectancy 34 years

65.  Civil Law: applied to Roman citizens
 Law of the Peoples: applied to everyone and supplemented civil law
 Natural Law: founded on Stoic philosophy
 Natural order of nature
 Embodied justice and right
 All men are entitled to it
 Conceptual but not applied

66.  Roman gods
 Judaism
 Christianity
 Mystic Religions

67.  Jesus was a historical figure
 Tacitus & Pliny the Younger
 Mention Jesus, confirm he was crucified by Pontius Pilate, identify Christians as a
religious sect (they don’t like them)
 Josephus
 Jewish historian
 Wrote a Roman friendly history of the Jews
 Mentions Jesus, John the Baptist and James
 Mentions Paul and the early church
 A confession that Jesus was the Christ in Josephus’s history is believed to have been
added by the Church

68.  Based on Gospels: Matthew, Mark, & Luke
 John is believed to have been written as much as two decades after the other three
 Considerable disagreement among scholars as to dates of writing
 Paul’s Letters to early churches
 Some believe written before the gospels—some after
 Paul and Peter killed during Nero persecution of Christians around 64 C.E.
according to Eusebius
 If Paul is the author of these letters then they must have been written before 64
C.E.

69.  The belief that a single god is the creator and ruler of all things
 Yahweh is transcendent: exists outside of time, nature, place and Kingship
 Ethical monotheism: obligations owed by all human beings toward their
creator, independent of place or political identity
 Yahweh created man in His image
 Yahweh is exclusively a god of righteousness
 Evil comes from man not Yahweh
 Micah 6:8 Yahweh requires man to live justly, love mercy and walk humbly

70.  Adopted basic principles of Hebrew ethical monotheism
 Rejected most ritual practices of Judaism for Gentile believers
 Salvation offered to everyone without Jewish ritual observance
 based on faith in Jesus
 Practiced sacrament “means of grace” of Holy Baptism
 Practiced sacrament of Holy Communion
 Sects developed and arguments arose over teachings of Jesus and Paul during
the 1st and 2nd centuries and have continued to the present
 What is the meaning of Grace?
 Must gentile Christians observe Jewish religious practices?
 Ecstatic Utterances (speaking in tongues)?
 Apocalyptic writings and interpretations?
 Women’s role in the local Churches?
 Eating meat offered to idols?

71.  Feared destabilization
 Christianity recognized no other gods (Romans allowed other gods but
expected people to show respect to theirs)
 Christians refused to worship the emperor as a god
 Despite growth of Christianity no more than 5 – 10% of people in Roman
Empire were Christians before the 4th century

72.  Nero and Caligula (poor emperors) succeeded by capable emperors who ruled
until 180 C.E.
 After 182 C.E.
 Provincial armies engaged in civil war and victors ruled as military dictators
 From 235-284 C.E. 26 “barracks Emperors ruled Rome

73.  Civil War
 Economic woes
 War ravaged agriculture
 Inflation
 Taxation
 Plague
 Galen a Greek Physician
 diarrhea, fever, inflamed throat with dry pustules appearing on the 9th day of
illness
 Modern historians conclude smallpox
 Decimated population, economic crisis and ravages of civil war lead Roman
armies to pull back from previous frontiers

74.  Rome recovered by 289 C.E. but never returned to its former glory
 Roman rule continues for another 200 years in the West
 Roman rule continues for another 1,000 years in the East

77.  Barbarian attacks
 No clear law of succession
 Lack of constitutional means for reform
 Allowed too much power to military
 Slave system and failure to develop industrial economy
 led to unstable economy
 required dependence on taxes
 Required tribute from conquered lands
 Declining population due to disease, civil war, constant foreign warfare
 Aristocrats contributed very little to economy and relied on legislated privileges that
exempted them from taxes
 Local elite could not keep up with demands undermining urban basis of classical Roman
civic ideals
 Lack of interest in preserving Rome by its citizens

79.  Ruled from 284-305 C.E.
 Autocrat
 Dominus (Lord)
 Formal rules off succession
 Split empire into East & West: 2 augusti
 2 Caesars
 Known as the Tetrarch
 Moved capital from Rome to Nicomedia (in Turkey).
 Diocletian ruled from Nicomedia
 Senate remained in Rome

82.  Ruled from 312-337
 Built a new capitol in the East: Constantinople
 Abandoned Tetrarch in favor of dynasty
 Eastern Empire
 Richer
 More populous
 More central to imperial policy
 Western Empire
 Poorer
 Peripheral
 Not well defended
 Legalized Christianity within Roman Empire

83.  Saw a Christian symbol while preparing to battle the “Barbarians” at Malian
Bridge
 Voice said, “In this sign, conquer”
 Constantine ordered men to paint the symbol on their shields
 He won
 Constructed churches
 Did not prohibit pagan worship
 Christianity became favored religion

84. Western Roman Emperor. Defended Rome
against various revolts.
-Engaged in 5 year war with Constantine
over who controlled the Western Roman
Empire.
-Army in the Eastern Empire declared
Constantine, the son of the previous emperor
Constantius to be Augustus.
-Army in Western Empire favored Maxentius,
the son of Constantius’s predecessor,
Maximian as emperor.
Constantine had Maximian executed.

85.  Lactantius: North African Latin historian who tutored Constantine’s son:
 The night before the Battle of Milvian Bridge against Maxentius (Western Roman
Emperor) Constantine dreamed of being ordered to place a heavenly divine symbol
upon his soldiers’ shields.
 Eusebius of Caesarea (4th century Christian Bishop who wrote a history of
the early church)
 Well before the battle, Constantine looked up at the sun and saw a cross of light
above it and the words “In this sign, conquer.”
 The next night Christ came to Constantine in a dream and told him to use the sign
against his enemies.

86. Battle of the Milvian Bridge by Giulio Romano (1520-1524) Fresco Apostolic Palace, Vatican City

88.  Formed by imposing the 1st two capital letters of the Greek word for Christ X
and P
 Not technically a cross, symbol invokes the crucifixion and the title “Christ”
 Symbol was often used by ancient Greeks as a symbol for “good fortune”
 Chi Rho became Constantine’s Labarum

90.  Basic doctrinal disputes resolved
 Arianism vs. Athanasians Trinity
 Council of Nicea
 Clearly defined hierarchy
 Patriarchs
 Bishops
 Primacy of Bishop of Rome: Pope
 Spread of Monasticism

91.  Saint Jerome (340-420)
 Translated Bible into Latin (vulgate)
 Argued that classical learning was important for Christians
 Saint Ambrose (340-397)
 Archbishop of Milan
 Argued that Emperor not above the Church
 Admired Cicero but said highest virtue is reverence for God

92.  Bishop of Hippo in North Africa
 How could humans be so profoundly sinful when they were created by an all-powerful
God whose nature is entirely good?
 Augustine’s answer: all evils are result of the innate human propensity to place our
own desires above God’s
 No one has the grace necessary for salvation
 Grace is God’s gift: given in greater portion to some
 Wrote City of God in response to those who blamed Christians for fall of Rome

94.  Huns
 Nomadic tribes from east of the Volga River
 Origins and language are subject of debate
 Mounted archers
 Atila the Hun
 Repeatedly attacked Eastern Roman Empire forcing Theodosius to pay tribute
 The barbarian territory of the Huns, (in Thrace, became so great that more than a hundred
cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from
it. ... And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be
numbered. Ay, for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks and
maidens in great numbers. (Callinicus, in Life of Saint Hypatius)
 Died in

96. Illustration from Nuremburg
Chronicle
Statue of Unknown Origin
c. 1800-1900

98.  Germans were settled agriculturalists and sophisticated metalworkers
 Traded with Romans
 Settled inside the empire
 Adopted Arian Christianity
 Goths settled along Danube
 378 Goths revolted
 Theodosius accommodated Goth demands for food and land
 Alaric invaded Rome in 410
 476 last Roman Emperor toppled by army of Germans, Huns and
Roman soldiers

99. Sack of Rome by the Visigoths, J.N. Silvestre, 1890
Alaric

100.  Military failure
 Economic failure
 Division of Empire
 Invader Kingdoms collected taxes but did not pay them to Rome
 People moved out

101.  Roman cities survived in Gaul and Spain
 Roman agricultural patterns remained
 Roman aristocrats dominated civic life
 Roman law
 Roman authority in the Christian Church

102.  Emperor of Byzantium
 Planned to re-conquer Western Roman Empire
 Enormous cost
 Insufficient manpower
 Distracted attention from dangers in the east
 Codified Roman Law

103.  Assimilation of Roman culture by Barbarians
 Migrations caused frontiers of empire to be indistinguishable from interiors of
Western Empire
 Learned culture of Greek and Roman world extended to larger numbers of people
 Increasingly Christian character of Roman world
 Fusion of Christian culture and late Roman governance
 Still centered around Mediterranean Sea

105. Emperor from 379-395
• Made Nicene Christianity the official religion within the Roman
Empire.
• Persecuted non-Nicene Christian sects and traditional Roman
and Pagan religious practitioners.
• Last emperor to rule over both eastern and Western Roman
Empire. He divided the rule of the eastern and western empire to
his two sons and it was never again united.
• Likely outlawed the Olympic games which ended in 393. They
were not reinstated until 1896.

106.  http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/etruscans.htm
 Virgil Reading the Aeneid to Augustus and Octavia by Jean-Joseph Taillasson
1787 (National Gallery, London)
 The Story of Lucretia by Sandro Botticelli (1500-1501) Isabella Stewart
Gardner Museum, Boston
 Cincinnatus leaves the plow for the Roman dictatorship - Juan Antonio Ribera,
c. 1806