Roman empire

ROME - GEOGRAPHY
 Characterized by the Seven Hills and The Tiber River.
 Situated on the eastern banks of river Tiber.
 Rome lies to the west of the Apennine Mountains that forms the
backbone of peninsular Italy.
 Experiences a Mediterranean climate.
 Popularly called 'the city of seven hills'.
seven hills were separated by marshy land
and the River Tiber.

 Rome climate very broadly is of the
'Mediterranean' variety. The summer
months are warm to mild, and the winters
are cold. The rainfall occurs during the
winter months between October to January.

THE SEVEN KINGS
The early history of Rome has always been an interesting mixture of
heroic legend and fact. According to legend, Rome was founded in 753
BC. Romulus was Rome's first king and after him there were 6 more kings.
The period traditionally lasted for 244 years (753-509 BC) and is known
about through the historian Livy who compiled his Great History of Rome
in a single narrative during the rule of Augustus, which indicates that he
ascertained his information through various myths and legends.

Numa Pompilius
Second legendary Sabine king of Rome (715-673 BC). According to legend
he was king of Rome, successor to Romulus. Most of the religious rites of
ancient and modern Rome were developed by him. He was supposedly
responsible for the pontifices, flamens (sacred priests), vestal virgins, the
building of the temple of Janes, and the reorganization of the calendar
into days. His reign was a peaceful one compared with that of Tullius
Hostilius who succeeded him.

Tullus Hostilius
Legendary third king of ancient Rome. 672-641BC. Tullius Hostilius was
famous for his warlike exploits. He conquered much surrounding territory and
added it to the growing area of land ruled by Rome. During his reign a long,
drawn - out war was fought between Rome and Alba Longa. Rome eventually
won and vanquished her rival city. The reign of Tullius Hostilius symbolizes the
ambitious and warlike nature of the Roman people. According to legend he
levelled Rome to the ground in 665 BC.

Ancus Martius
Legendary fourth king of ancient Rome (640-616 BC). This king is
supposed to have enlarged the area of Rome.

Tarquinius Priscus
(Lucius Tarquinius Priscus). The legendary fifth king of Rome (616-578 BC).

Servius Tullus
The legendary sixth king of ancient Rome 578 - 534 BC who built the city walls
and whose accession to the throne was prophesied by Tanaquil, the widow of
Priscus. He was assassinated by his daughter Tullia and her husband Tarquin.

Tarquinius Superbus
(Lucius Tarquinius Superbus) "Tarquin the Proud" was the legendary
seventh king of ancient Rome. (534-510 BC). He was the last of
the Tarquins to rule Rome. He murdered Tullus and seized the throne.
Under his rule the Etruscans were at the height of their power, and the
authority of the monarchy was absolute. He was despised by the people
for his tyranny, and cast out by the senate in 510 BC and the Republic was
established in 509 B C.

The Family
The family was the most important part of Roman society. The main person in
charge legally of the family was the pater or father. He even had the power of
life or death within the family. If the matron, the woman of the house, was of a
dignified social status, the power of the father was somewhat restrained.
Originally called by the Latin title of pater familias, the father evolved into
the patron of Roman Republican and early Imperial society.

Class Divisions
In Rome there were various class divisions that
were very stringent. Under the Etruscans, a new
wealthy aristocratic class had come into Rome
known as the patricians.
The Patricians
The patricians were great land-owners and of a
noble Latin birth. Once the Etruscans were driven
out the patricians declared Rome a republic (a
community by which people elect their leaders).
They served in the Senate and were very privileged.
They controlled the offices within the army, and they
governed the important events that happened
within society such as the public religious
ceremonies.
The Plebeians
There were also the Plebeians who made up the majority of Rome's inhabitants. Plebeians
were a class of citizens who were usually non aristocratic farmers, artisans and
shopkeepers, and some were wealthy. They did have rights, such as the right to serve in
the Assembly and the right to vote, trade, hold property, and administer judicial self
defense. They were not as privileged as the patricians and could never marry one. They
could not hold a public office and could never receive entry into the Senate and there was
no recorded bill of rights.

The Clients and the Slaves
The Clients were peasant farmers who rented land. They
would follow a certain patron and perform political duties,
including assassinations, and lying in court, if it would help
further his patron's political career. In return, the client
often received money, a job, or an invitation to dinner at the
patron's house. A dinner invitation may not seem like much
to us today, but in Roman times it could mean a great place
in society if he appeared at the right dinner parties. His
prestige in society would be much more enhanced if he
were seen by the rich and famous at only one dinner party
hosted by a powerful patron.
This patron-client relationship led to many interesting
situations in ancient Rome. Sometimes candidates for
various government magistracies would travel around
Rome with several hundred or even a few thousand of their
clients.
Lastly were the Slaves, who had no freedom or rights
whatsoever unless it was bestowed upon them by their
master.

EIGHTH CENTURY B.C.
753
The city Rome is founded.

753-716 BC: Romulus rules over the
city of Rome that becomes an asylum
for refugees, criminals and runaway
slaves . The unequal men: women
ratio makes Romulus and his men to
forcibly take the virgin women of
neighbouring Sabine town of Cures as
wives. Many Greek cities are founded on
750 BC:
Italy.

715-674 BC: Death of Romulus and Numa
Pompilius, a religious, cultural figure was
crowned the emperor of Rome.

SEVENTH CENTURY B.C.
Etruscan influence reaches Rome (c. 625 B.C.)

673-642 BC: After 43 years of peaceful
rule, Numa Pompillus is dead. He is
succeeded by Tullus Hostilius. Emperor
Hostilius was a man of the sword, who
went to war with Alba Longa and later on
Fidenates. He also went to war with the
Sabine neighbors, until a plague on
himself and his city forced him to make
peace.

642-617 BC: Tullus Hostilius was struck by lighting and killed. The fourth emperor to
rule the Roman throne was Ancus Marcius. He was Numa Pompilius's grandson.
The neighboring cities thought him to be a push over, who would be eager for peace
at any price. But Ancus Marcius proved himself to be a great warrior, administrator,
priest and a diplomat. He build the first bridge over the river Tiber, Sublician Bridge.
Ancus Marcius was a good king who was respected by his people.

SIXTH CENTURY B.C.
616-579 BC: Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
became the fifth ruler of Rome. Also known
as Tarquin the Elder, he rose to have a
significant influence on Rome. He was a
favorite of Ancus Marcius and he was made
the guardian of his two sons. After the
death of Ancus Marcius, he cunningly sent
the sons for hunting while he made the
funeral arrangements.

On their return they were surprised to find Tarquin on the throne. He had used their
absence to win over the Roman votes and become the ruler of Rome. He became a great
ruler building a strong army that won over Sabines, Latins and Etruscans.

He was killed by assassins hired by the scorned sons of Ancus. His clever wife did not
disclose his death immediately and announced that the injured Tarquin wanted his son-in-
law Servius Tullius to take over till he recovers.
509 BC
Rome becomes a republic.
Rome becomes the most important city of his surroundings, Latium.

FIFTH CENTURY B.C
500 B.C.Laws of the Twelve Tables codified in Rome (451 B.C.)
The Law of the Twelve Tables ) was the ancient legislation that stood at the foundation of Roman law. The
Law of the Twelve Tables formed the centrepiece of the constitution of the Roman Republic and the core of
the mos maiorum (custom of the ancestors). The Twelve Tables must be distinguished from the unrelated —
and much older — "twelve shields" of King Numa Pompilius.

Rome had believed in early times that she
was destined to rule the world even though
there were many hostile peoples around her.
She fought hard and survived. By the sixth
century Rome had thrown out her last king
and the Republic was founded around 510
BC.
From City-State to Nation-State
For the next two and a half centuries the
small city-state of Rome expanded its
boundaries gradually until it ruled the
entire Italian peninsula. This protected
them from many of their hostile
neighbours.

The Latin League
The power of the Etruscans was diminishing yet
they had an extremely large army of Italian
tribes prepared for war along with two other
powerful neighboring armies, the great
mountain tribe armies of the Aequi, and
the Volsci. Rome was in great danger because
of them. Rome was also in danger because the
Latin cities had formed a league to threaten the
newly formed republic in Rome and she had to
defend herself against this alliance for many
years.

Rome, who had been mainly an army of farmers defending their land, decided to regroup
and organize and they finally won a tremendous victory at Lake Regillus in 486 BC and they
became the dominant partner in the league. They all became allies so that they could
defend themselves against the armies of the Etruscans, the Aequi, and the Volsci.

Meanwhile the northern Sabellians were invading the lands of the Aequi, and the Volsci
which drove them down into Italy to attack Rome. Two great Roman leaders defeated
them one named Coriolanus defeated the Aequi and another named Cincinnatus defeated
the Volsci.
After this Rome made more attacks on the Etruscans and doubled her territory which
eventually brought them to a place as leader of the Latin League.

FOURTH CENTURY B.C
The fourth century started out as a terrible time for the Romans and yet by the end
of the century they had defeated the combined armies of the Latin League and
Rome became the capital of all of Latium and her armies defended its borders.

Etruscan city of Veii falls to Rome

Etruscan civilization in decline (396 B.C.)

Rome begins conquest of Italy (396 B.C.)

Gauls sack Rome (390 B.C.)
.
The Gauls
Around 387 BC a barbarous tribe in the north part of Europe known as the
Gauls defeated the Romans at the River Allia and invaded Italy and sacked
Rome. According to the historian Livy, most of the people had fled Rome in
terror. Only a handful of soldiers and some Roman senators had remained and
the Gauls provoked the senators to defend themselves and when they did the
Gauls brutally slaughtered them.

Rome signs treaty with Carthage (348 B.C.)

First Samnite War between Rome and the
Samnites (343 B.C.-341 B.C.)

first Roman coins (338 B.C.)

Second Samnite War between Rome and the
Samnites (327 B.C.-304 B.C.

THIRD CENTURY BC
By the turn of the third century Rome had a powerful army, a new navy, and a great
military highway, with strong garrisons of soldiers at strategic borders. Rome was
well organized in her efforts to maintain a unity within her territory. The statesmen
would discourage internal strife by providing generous land grants to the army, as
well as the spoils of war and democratic rights. They also forced their victims to join
their armies.

300 B.C. Third Samnite War between Rome and the Samnites (298 B.C.-290 B.C.)
Pyrrhus of Epirus invades Italy, but is forced to withdrawal (275 B.C.)

First Punic War between Rome and Carthage(264 B.C.-
241 B.C.)
When Carthage moved into Messina in northern
Sicily the local Greek cities under Rome's protection
cried out to Rome for help. Rome sent an army to
Sicily and the wars began. Carthage was larger and
wealthier than Rome yet Rome was superior in its
manpower and its loyal citizenry. The biggest threat
to Rome was not in the land battles but in the Sea
battles because of Carthage's huge navy and her
naval skills.

After winning many victories the Romans
lost 200 of their ships and 100,000 men to
very violent storms off Camarina in 255
BC. They soon regrouped and defeated
Carthage in 241 BC with a third fleet of
warships. It took approximately 20 years
for the Romans to drive the Carthaginians
out of Sicily. This would mark Rome's first
overseas territory.

Colossus of Rhodes completed (c. 275 B.C.)

first public gladiator combat in Rome (264 B.C.)
Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage (218 B.C.-202
B.C.)
Hannibal's Plan
Carthage was not going to give up easily. A
determined leader of Carthage, Hamilcar Barca
directed his attention to Spain where they could get
control over the mineral resources there and create
an army from the people there that would match the
Roman legions. His son Hannibal was committed to
ruin Rome and created a military base in Spain.

Hannibal devised an ingenious plan. His intention was to make a surprise attack upon Italy
herself. He led his new army consisting of 60,000 men, 6,000 horses and 37 war elephants
over the River Rhone (with his elephants on rafts), then across the Pyrenees mountains,
then through southern Gaul and they finally arrived at the Alps after 5 months.

Only 1/2 of his army had survived. The
Greek historian Polybius described the
scene. Hannibal finally arrived in Italy
and went a severe rampage against the
Romans. The Roman
historian Livy describes Hannibal's
leadership

Hannibal is Defeated
Rome could not defeat Hannibal in Italy so she retaliated by conquering Spain
and then attacking Carthage. Under the leadership of Cornelius Scipio Africanus
a Roman army sailed to Africa and attacked Carthage.

Hannibal was recalled to Africa in 203 BC to defend his homeland and he was
defeated by Scipio in 202 BC at Zama Regia, 80 miles southwest of Carthage.
This was Hannibal's first defeat. He escaped to Greece but for Carthage the war
was lost.

Scipio Africanus

Carthage surrendered and gave up
her fleet and all her overseas
territory, including the Spanish
colonies, and paid another large
indemnity.
Now Rome was clearly the master
of the Mediterranean Sea

Rome and Macedonia sign a non-aggression pact (205 B.C.)

ALL THE last Etruscan cities fall to Roman expansion ( 200 B.C.)

Rome attacks Macedonia (200 B.C.)

last Etruscan cities fall to Roman expansion (c. 200
B.C.)

Rome defeats Macedonian army under Philip V at
Cynoscephalae (197 B.C.)

first known paved streets appear in Rome (170
B.C.)

Rome defeats Macedonia at Pydna (168 B.C.)

Macedonia forced to pay tribute to Rome (168
B.C.)

first water clock in Rome (c. 159 B.C.)

Macedonian revolt led by Andriscus defeats a
Roman legion (150 B.C.)

Water clock

Water clock
A water clock or clepsydra is a device for measuring time by letting
water regularly flow out of a container usually by a tiny aperture. Since
the rate of flow of water is very difficult to control precisely, water
clocks could never achieve high accuracy.
Water clocks were among the earliest chronometers that did not
depend on the observation of celestial bodies.

clepsydras ("water thieves") by the Greeks, who began using them
about 325 BC, these were stone vessels with sloping sides that
allowed water to drip at a nearly constant rate from a small hole near
the bottom. Other clepsydras were cylindrical or bowl-shaped
containers designed to slowly fill with water entering at a constant
rate.

Markings on the inside surfaces measured the passage of "hours" as
the water level reached them. These clocks were used to determine
hours at night, but may have been used in daylight as well. Another
version consisted of a metal bowl with a hole in the bottom; when
placed in a container of water the bowl would fill and sink in a certain
time. These were still in use in northern Africa in the 20th century.

More elaborate and
impressive mechanized
water clocks were
developed between 100 BC
and 500 A.D. by Greek and
Roman horologists and
astronomers.

The added complexity was
aimed at making the flow
more constant by
regulating the pressure and
at providing fancier
displays of the passage of
time.

Third Punic War between Rome and
Carthage (149 B.C.-146 B.C.)

By the end of the Second Punic War
(the war where Hannibal and his
elephants crossed the Alps), Rome so
hated Carthage that she wanted to
destroy the north African urban center.

The story is told that when Rome finally
got to take revenge, after the Romans
won the Third Punic War, they salted
the fields so the Carthaginians could no
longer live there.

By 201 B.C., the end of the Second Punic War, Carthage no longer had her
empire, but she was still a shrewd trading nation. By the middle of the second
century, Carthage was thriving and it was hurting the trade of those Romans
who had investments in North Africa.

Meanwhile, African tribes neighboring Carthage knew that according to the
peace treaty between Carthage and Rome that had concluded the Second
Punic War, if Carthage overstepped the line drawn in the sand, it would be
interpreted as an act of aggression against Rome.

These neighbors took advantage of this reason to feel secure and made hasty
raids into Carthaginian territory, knowing their victims couldn't pursue them.
Eventually, Carthage could stand these incursions no longer. In 149 B.C.,
Carthage got back into armor and went after the Numidians.
Rome declared war because Carthage had broken the treaty.
Although Carthage didn't stand a chance, the war was drawn out for three
years. Eventually a descendant of Scipio Africanus, Scipio Aemilianus,
defeated the starved citizens of the besieged city of Carthage. After killing or
selling all the inhabitants into slavery, the Romans razed (possibly salting the
land) and burned the city. No one was allowed to live there. Cato's chant had
been carried out.
Rome puts down a Macedonian revolt (148
B.C.)

Macedonia annexed by Rome (148 B.C.)
Greece falls under Roman control (147 B.C.)
Phrygia becomes a Roman province (133 B.C.)
Lydia absorbed into the Roman Empire (133
B.C.)

FIRST CENTURY BC
100 B.C.birth of Gaius Julius Caesar (100 B.C.)

civil war in Rome ( 90 B.C. )

revolt of slaves and gladiators led by Spartacus (71 B.C.)

birth of Virgil (70 B.C.)

birth of Gaius Octavius (Augustus) future Roman Emperor (63 B.C.)

Pompey of Rome captures Jerusalem and places Judah under
Roman rule (63 B.C.)

Triumvirate formed between C. Licinius Crassus, Gaius Julius Caesar,
and Pompeius Magnus (59 B.C.)

Gaius Julius Caesar begins conquest of Gaul (58 B.C.)

Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsalus in Greece (48 B.C.)
JULIUS CAESAR

Caesar murdered (44 B.C.)
Herod the Great rules Israel as a Roman
vassal (34-4 B.C.)

Gaius Julius Octavianus (Augustus) defeats
Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Actium (31
B.C.)

Egypt becomes a Roman province (31 B.C.)

construction of the Pantheon begins (30 B.C.)

Augustus becomes the first Emperor of the
Roman Empire (27 B.C.)

Kush assists the Nubians in a revolt against
Rome (24 B.C.)

Roman army razes Kushite city of Napata (23
B.C.)
Emperor AUGUSTUS

ZERO CENTURY

Rome invades the British Isles (30
A.D.)

Titus suppresses a revolt in
Jerusalem (70 A.D.)

Silk Road from China to Rome
opened (74 A.D.)

Conflagration in Rome. (64 AD)

The Vesuvius erupts; Pompeii and
other cities are burried under a
thick lay of ash. (74 AD)

SILK ROUTE FROM ROME TO CHINA

FIRST CENTURY AD
100 A.D.Marcus Aurelius becomes emperor of
Rome (161 A.D.)

great plague in the Roman Empire (164 A.D.)

Antonian Emperors rule rome. (117-193 AD)

ROMAN EMPEROR MARCUS AURELIUS

Roman art
Sculptures
Paintings
Motifs
Mosaic works
Pottery

T he Romans developed or improved their art by copying the art from the
Greeks for the statues.

ROMAN STATUES

S tatues were made from clay or marble. Metal was sometimes added to the
statues so that they had added strenght. Statues were well made, were nude and
they were made of gods or important leaders which were recognised . The fact that
the statues had important people meant that they had to be done as well as possible
since it was honouring their gods.

ROMAN PAINTINGS

Paintings and mosaics were important too as they were used to advertise or to show
everyday life scenes. These were made in local colours which were found in the stone,
plants and any other source of colour. one example of this is in the Roman town of
Pompeii. These paintings usualy showed scenes of everyday life in the countryside.
Mosaics are said to have come from the city of Babylon and that since the Romans
found great beauty decided to copy it, adding it to buildings etc.

ROMAN MOTIFS , MOSAIC AND GEM WORK

There are different styles of mosaics and there is a name for each style.
These names are opus sectile which is a name given to mosaics made
with geometric shapes of stone put in a certain way to make a shape of
the desired look.

There is also opus tessellatum which are like dice. Square in shape and
are all of the same shape so these were used mostly on floors.

There is a more complex styles which is called Opus vermiculatum where
the square stones are of varying sizes. Mosaics are usually made up of tiny
stones which are painted. When they are placed in a certain way they
make scenes from everyday life like paintings or photos do now.

The Romans also engraved gems and used them as seals, to mark official
documents to prove that they were by certain people so that no one could
falsify the document. They engraved the background so that the character
stood out of the ring.

Roman Pottery
Roman pottery was inspired by Estruscan pottery, but
rapidly evolved it's own unique style.

During the Roman Republic, most pottery was made
locally. In the era of Augustus, 63 BC – 14 AD, to meet
the demands of an expanding empire, pottery was
mass-produced in large factories.

Arezzo in Italy, was famed for it potteries.
There were other potteries situated in southern France.
This pottery, called Samian ware, was a distinctive red
colour.

It was very popular and exported throughout the Roman
world.
The decorative elements were made by plaster moulds.
The styles and shapes were influenced by the West Asian
potters.

Popularity of Samian Ware

By c.70AD, the Italian and French Samian pottery
was being extensivly copied.

These imitations have different names according
to where they were produced.Hispania Baetica
copies were called Terra Sigillata Hispanica

The North African copies, were known as African
Red Slip Ware, or terra Sigillata, were highly
popular
Amphoras and lamps were also manufactured on
a large scale.
African Red Slip ware was exported all over the
western part of the Roman empire, eventually
bankrupting the Italian and French potteries. The
standard of craftsmanship slowly declined once
the market had been flooded.

African Red Slip continued to be made until the
7th century. Islamic invaders introduced their
vibrant lusters to the future al-Andalus Arts and
Crafts.

Origins of Roman Architecture
As with sculpture, the Romans
borrowed heavily from two cultures
that they conquered – the Etruscans
and the Greeks.

Elements of Roman architecture show
very significant Greek influence.
However, Roman functional needs
sometimes differed, resulting in
interesting innovations.
The Romans were less attached to
“ideal” forms and extended Greek ideas
to make them more functional.
Romans needed interior space for worship, whereas the Greeks worshipped outside.

Their solution was to extend the walls outward, creating engaged columns, while
maintaining the same basic shape.

Roman Innovation

To the original Greek orders,
the Romans added two:
The Tuscan order.
The Compostite order.

Tuscan Order:

Like the Doric, except this one
has a base.

The Composite order combined
elements of both the Ionic and Corinthian.
It appears to be Corinthian acanthus leaves,
supplemented with volutes.

The Romans were the great engineers of the
ancient world.

Their structures, particularly of public works,
were often massive in scale

The Roman ability to build massively was
largely determined by their discovery of slow-
drying concrete, made with pozzolana sand.
This allowed not only bases, but also walls to
be constructed of mainly concrete or concrete
and rubble.

Facings could be made of more expensive
stone or inexpensive brick.
The result was strong structures that could be
formed in any desirable shape.

Roman Architecture used arches on a scale which had hitherto been unknown. The Romans
perfected the mixing of a heavy duty, waterproof, fire-resistant concrete: cement, sand and
small-sized rocks binded in a limestone mixture with volcanic ashes and pulverized pumice.
This concrete facilitated the construction of large arches and domes that could carry a great
deal of weight. The arches of Ancient Rome made a vast impact on architecture. This
technique thereafter was copied and adapted throughout the world.

The Transcendance of
Roman Town Planning
Roman cities and towns were
drawn up in a rectangular overall
plans.
Two main streets divided the
metropolis into sections:

The Cardo (north-south street)
and the Decumanus (east-west
street). streets subdivided each
Smaller
section. Roman cities were
protected by a wall and gate.

Fresh running water and Public baths were an essential feature as
were sewerage drains, keeping health and hygiene as a integral part
of civilization.

Roman Art and Architecture Baelo Claudia Model

Roman Architecture was
imperial, monumental and
impressive

Centuries later...Spanish
royalty chose to build two
Roman-styled palaces:

The Palace of Carlos V at
the Alhambra Granada
Spain and during the
Spanish Siglo de Oro: Felipe
11's El Escorial Palace in
San Lorenzo de El Escorial -
whose architect Juan
Bautista de Toledo had
spent most of his life in
Rome.

Roman influence survived
the centuries, clearly
visible, in Roman art and
architecture.

The typical Roman city of the later Republic
and empire had a rectangular plan and
resembled a Roman military camp with two
main streets—the cardo (north-south) and the
decumanus (east-west)—a grid of smaller
streets dividing the town into blocks, and a
wall circuit with gates.
Older cities, such as Rome itself, founded
before the adoption of regularized city
planning, could, however, consist of a maze of
crooked streets. The focal point of the city
was its forum, usually situated at the center
of the city at the intersection of the cardo and
the decumanus

ARCHITECTURE 800 – 700 BC

The first primitive cottages on the Palatine.

Later stages of roman housing
Roman houses were so well built, if you were rich,
that many examples of Roman houses exist
throughout the Roman Empire.

If you were poor in Rome, you lived in simple flats
or apartments - the inside of these places was
symbolic of your lack of wealth.

These flats were known as insulae and only
contained two rooms at the most. People tended
to use them only for sleeping as they had to work,
visit the baths (as their flats had no running water)
and they usually ate in local inns as cooking in
these flats was not safe.

Rich family homes were very different. The rich
lived in single-storey houses which were built
around a central hall known as an atrium. Atrium
had rooms opening up off of them and they were
also open to the weather as they had no roofs.
Roman insulae Many atriums had a trough built into their design
so that water could be collected when it rained.

Beyond an atrium was a second open
courtyard known as a peristylum. This area
included a garden and it also had rooms
opening up off of it. In the homes of the
wealthy, the gardens served as a meeting
point so they were designed to be shady and
comfortable so that people could meet in
them regardless of whether the sun was
fierce.

The main rooms were decorated with
coloured plaster walls and, if they could be
afforded, mosaics. These decorated floors
were a statement of your wealth and
importance. The grander mosaics had to be
done by experts and they were expensive. A
master mosaic craftsman would map out the
picture while those who worked for him did
the actual work in making a mosaic. Probably
the most famous Roman mosaic in Britain is
at Fishbourne Palace in West Sussex. Plan of rich roman houses

Though mosaics could be spectacular, furniture,
even in the homes of the rich, tended to be basic.

Stools were common as opposed to chairs and
reclining couches were used. Beds were simple
affairs with 'springs' being provided by leather
straps that criss-crossed a bed frame.

Houses also had water piped straight to them -
unlike flats and apartments. Lead pipes brought
water to a house. However, these pipes were taxed
according to size - the larger the pipes, the more the
tax.

Archaeologists can usually tell the wealth of an
owner of a Roman house by simply looking at the
size of the lead pipes that brought water to that
house. A roman atrium

Houses were also centrally heated by what was known as a hypocaust. This was under-
floor heating.

Slaves were charged with keeping the hypocaust both clean and alight during the day.
This system of heating was also used to keep some Roman baths hot if they had no access
to naturally heated water.

Some Roman villas in Britain have
survived in such good condition
that we have a very clear idea
about how the rich lived and
what their homes were like.

When the Romans left Britain, it
appears that some villas were
covered with dirt to 'trap' into
them the spirits of the Romans -
thus, they could not 'escape'.

In 1960, a workman found
substantial ancient building
rubble at Fishbourne, West
Sussex, while digging a trench.

In 1961 a trial excavation took
place and what was essentially a
complete Roman villa was found.
A huge variety of Roman homes 3-d veiw of a roman villa
can also be found at Pompeii, of
course.

Forums
The forum, an open area bordered by
colonnades with shops, functioned as the chief
meeting place of the town.

It was also the site of the city's primary
religious and civic buildings, among them the
Senate house, records office, and basilica.

When archaeologists began excavating the city
of Pompeii, which had been covered with ash
and mud by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in
ad 79, they found the remains of people,
ancient buildings, and other artifacts
preserved amid the volcanic debris.

Among the structures uncovered was The
Forum of Pompeii, pictured, a group of
temples, courts, and palaces that served as the
city’s legislative center.

Roman Temples
The chief temple of a Roman city, the
capitolium, was generally located at one end of
the forum. The standard Roman temple was a
blend of Etruscan and Greek elements;
rectangular in plan, it had a gabled roof, a deep
porch with freestanding columns, and a frontal
staircase giving access to its high plinth, or
platform.
By the 1st century b.c, the extensive conquests
of the Romans led them to regard the
Mediterranean as mare nostrum (our sea).

Roman influence went far beyond politics.
Roman art, architecture, and language were
among the cultural traits that slowly took hold
in many of Rome's conquered territories. Ruins
of ancient temples in Baalbek, Lebanon, include
the Temple of Jupiter, built by the Romans after
they took control of the territory that included
what is now Lebanon in 64 b.c.

The Regia was a structure in Ancient Rome,
located in the Roman Forum. It was originally
the residence of the kings of Rome or at least
their main headquarters, and later the office
of the Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of
Roman religion. It occupied a triangular patch
of terrain between the Temple of Vesta, the
Temple of Divus Julius and Temple
of Antoninus and Faustina.

Only the foundations of Republican/Imperial
Regia remain. Like the Curia it was destroyed
and rebuilt several times, as far back as the
Roman monarchy. Studies have found
multiple layers of similar buildings with more
regular features, prompting the theory that
this "Republican Regia" was to have a
different use.

ROMAN INNOVATION – MASSIVE BUILDING
- THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA
PRIMIGENIA

 The Temple of
Fortuna Primigenia
was a massive
structure, made
possible by concrete
construction.

Servian Wall
The Servian Wall was a defensive barrier
constructed around the city of Rome in the
early 4th century BC. The wall was up to
10 metres (32.8 ft) in height in places,
3.6 metres (12 ft) wide at its base, 11 km (7 mi)
long, and is believed to had 16 main gates,
though many of these are mentioned only from
writings, with no other known remains.
History
It is presumed that the wall is named after the
sixth Roman King, Servius Tullius. Although its
outline may go back to the 6th century BC, the
currently extant wall was, it is estimated, built
during the later Roman Republic, possibly as a
way to prevent a repeat of the sack of Rome
during Battle of the Allia by
the Gauls of Brennus. Due to the ease with which
the Gauls entered the city, it is conjectured that
at some time previous to this, Rome had been
forced by its Etruscan rulers to dismantle any
significant prior defenses.

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus

The Temple of Jupiter Optimus
Maximus, also known as the Temple
of Jupiter Capitolinus was the most
important temple in Ancient Rome,
located on the Capitoline Hill.

First building
Much of what is known of the first Temple of Jupiter is from later Roman tradition. Lucius
Tarquinius Priscus vowed this temple while battling with the Sabines , and according
to Dionysius of Halicarnassus began the terracing necessary to support the foundations
of the temple. Modern coring on the Capitoline has confirmed the extensive work needed
just to create a level building site. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Livy, the
foundations and most of the superstructure of the temple were completed by Lucius
Tarquinius Superbus.

Second building

Plan of the temple.
Sulla hoped to live until the temple was rebuilt,
but Quintus Lutatius Catulus had the honor of
dedicating the new structure in 69 BC. The new
temple was built to the same plan on the same
foundations, but with more expensive materials
for the superstructure. Literary sources indicate
that the temple was not entirely completed until
the late 60s BC. Brutus and the other assassins
locked themselves inside it after
murdering Caesar. The new temple of Quintus
Lutatius Catulus was renovated and repaired
by Augustus.
The second building burnt down during the
course of fighting on the hill on December 19
in 69 AD, when Vespasian battled to enter the city
as Emperor in the Year of the Four
Emperors. Domitian narrowly escaped with his
life.

Third building
The new emperor, Vespasian, rapidly rebuilt the temple on the same foundations but with
a lavish superstructure. The third temple of Jupiter was dedicated in AD 75. The third
temple burned during the reign of Titus in the great fire of AD 80.

Fourth building
Relief sculpture of Marcus Aurelius sacrificing at the fourth
temple.
Domitian immediately began rebuilding the temple, again on
the same foundations, but with the most lavish superstructure
yet. According to ancient sources, Domitian used at least
twelve thousands talents of gold for the gilding of the bronze
roof tiles alone. Elaborate sculpture adorned the pediment.
A Renaissance drawing of a damaged relief in the Louvre
Museum shows a four-horse chariot) beside a two-horse
chariot to the right of the latter at the highest point of the
pediment, the two statues serving as the central acroterion,
and statues of the god Mars and goddess Venus surmounting
the corners of the cornice, serving as acroteria.
In the center of the pediment the god Jupiter was flanked by
Juno and Minerva, seated on thrones. Below was an eagle
with wings spread out. A biga driven by the sun god and a biga
driven by the moon were depicted either side of the three
gods.
The temple completed by Domitian is thought to have lasted Relief sculpture of Marcus
more or less intact for over four hundred years, until the fifth Aurelius sacrificing at the fourth
century depredations of Stilicho, Gaiseric, and Narses.
temple.

It was said that the Temple of Jupiter was dedicated on September 13 the year of
the Roman Republic, c. 509 BC. It was sacred to the Capitoline Triad consisting of
Jupiter and his companion deities, Juno and Minerva.
The man to perform the dedication of the temple was chosen by lot. The duty fell
to Marcus Horatius Pulvillus, one of the consuls in that year.
The original Temple measured almost 60 x 60 m and was considered the most
important religious temple of the whole state of Rome. Each deity of the Triad had a
separate cella, with Juno Regina on the left, Minerva on the right, and Jupiter
Optimus Maximus in the middle. The first temple was decorated with many terra
cotta sculptures. The most famous of these was of Jupiter driving a quadriga, a
chariot drawn by four horses, which was on top of the roof as an acroterion. This
sculpture, as well as the cult statue of Jupiter in the main cella, was said to have been
the work of Etruscan artisan Vulca of Veii. An image of Summanus, a thunder god,
was among the pedimental statues.

The plan and exact dimensions of the temple have been heavily debated. Five
different plans of the temple have been published following recent excavations on
the Capitoline Hill that revealed portions of the archaic foundations. According to
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the same plan and foundations were used for later
rebuildings of the temple.
The first Temple burned in 83 BC, during the civil wars under the dictatorship of Sulla.
Also lost in this fire were the Sibylline Books, which were said to have been written
by classical sibyls, and stored in the Temple (to be guarded and consulted by
the Quindecemviri (council of fifteen) on matters of state only on emergencies).

The Etruscan obsession with elaborate burials
leads us to suppose that they may have had an
underlying belief, similar to the Egyptians that a
part of the soul remained with the body, or at
least that the body was important for the afterlife.
Having said that, the earliest grave sites were
cremations, with the ash being retained either in
biconical urns, or urns fashioned to represent huts.
Gradually inhumation burials began to appear, the
first being in Tarquinia and Caere, and during the
Orientalizing period eventually became the
prevailing rite, except in northern Etruria, where
cremation persisted right up to the 1st century BC,
epitomised by the elaborately carved alabaster
urns of Volterra.
In the Orientalizing period the use of writing, the potter's wheel, and monumental
funerary architecture reflected the accumulation of luxury goods of gold and ivory
and exotic trade items such as ostrich eggs,tridacna shells, and faience. Many scholars
hypothesize the existence of a powerful aristocratic class, and craftsmen, merchants,
and seamen would have formed a middle class; it was probably at this time that the
Etruscans began to maintain the elegant slaves for which they were famous.

Funerary Games
The passion for games was very widespread among the Etruscans. Besides the funereal
games of the Phersu (See: tomb of the Augurs), other games of skill were popular ( See
tomb of the Juggler): In this game, the objective was to throw a series of disks into a large
wine crater balanced on the head of a female performer. The game of Pertica, consisted of
a slippery wooden pole which competitors had to climb . Sporting competitions were
important events in the Etruscan world and took place at religious ceremonies such as
funerals. Athletic competitions took place in the stadiums while horse races took place in
the Hippodrome. One of the most frequent competitions was the chariot race, as
illustrated in dramatic detail in the Tomb of the Bigas in Tarquinia. In the arena jumpers and
discus and javelin throwers also competed. The Tomb of the Olympic Games shows some
graphic details of such sports together with crowds of spectators.

Caere
The Tombs of Caere (or Cerveteri as it is known today) span an extensive timescale,
from the Villanovan period right up until the late Roman period, but by far the majority
of the tombs are those of the 6th and 7th Century BCE- a time when Caere reached its
peak, and must have rivaled such cities as Athens and Corinth.

The tombs occupy a wide area:
The valley of the Sorbo, where the famous Regolini - Galassi tomb (c. 650 - 625 BCE) with its
splendid Gold Jewellery was discovered, and the neighbouring hills of Monte Abatone, with
its Torlonia tomb and Campana Tumulus, and the Banditaccia, which has over four hundred
Tombs, in some cases forming veritable streets of the dead carved out of the volcanic tufa.

*1 - Via degli Inferi (street of Hades) *11 - Via dei Monti della Tolfa (Street of the Tolfa Hills)
*2 - Tomba dei Capitelli (Tomb of the Capitals) *12 - Tomb of the Street of the Tolfa Hills
*3 - Tombs of the late period *13 - Via dei Monti Cerifi (Street of the Cerveteri Hills)
*4 - Tufa containers (Ziri) *14 - Maroi Tumulus
*5 - Tomba della Capanna (Tomb of the Hut) *15 - Tumulus of the Polichrome Cornice
*6 - Excavation of tombs of the late period *16 - Tumulus with decorated drum
*7 - Tomba dei Rilievi (Tomb of the Bas-reliefs) *17 - Mengarelli Tumulus
*8 - Tomba della Cornice (Tomb of the Cornice) *18 - Drainage tunnel
*9 - Tomba della Casetta (Tomb of the House) *19 - Tumulus of the Colonel
*10 - Via dei Vasi Aretini (Street of the Aretine Vases) *20 - Tomba a Dado (Cube Tomb)
*21 - Drainage channel

Tarquinia
The earliest archaeological remains at the original site of Tarquinia are 9th-century BCE Villanovan (Iron Age) well
tombs. Cremation with ashes in a biconical vessel is commonly found from this period, but the earliest examples of
inhumation also started to appear, contemporaneous with cremation sites, but possibly associated with varying
family traditions.

The famous Etruscan necropolis of Monterozzi, situated on a ridge southwest of the ancient city, contains the most
important painted tombs in Etruria, mostly rock-cut chamber tombs dating from the 6th to the 4th century BCE.

Today the location of more than one hundred and fifty painted tombs are known. The Tarquinia tomb frescos are
well preserved in many cases, and we owe much of our insight into Etruscan lifestyle to the Tarquinia frescos. The
Tarquinia frescos represent approximately 90% of all Etruscan necropolis frescos.

One of the most famous is the Fowling and Fishing Tomb with its polychrome frescoes painted about 520 BCE. The
tombs of the Lionesses of the Augurs , and of the Banquet (Bacchantes) (all 6th century BCE) show dancing and
banqueting scenes.

The Tomb of the Triclinium is the most outstanding 5th-century painted tomb, and the Tomb of the Shields is a
masterpiece of 4th-century painting. A distinctive 2nd-century painting tradition, rare in Etruria, is found in the
paintings of the Tomb of the Cardinal, and the Tomb of the Typhon. A serious conservation problem has arisen as
many of the paintings have been attacked by moisture and fungus since the collection was opened to the public. A
rich collection of articles from the necropolis is housed in the archaeological museum in the Palazzo Vitelleschi
(1436-39) in modern Tarquinia.

At the upper floor some tombs have been rebuilt with the original paintings. The race between chariots (bigas)
where one is moved by the feeling of speed (from the "Tomb of the Olympic games"), the cruel game of "phersu"
(in the "Tomb of the Bigas " ) or scenes of funeral banquets and dances and the rare representation of a big ship
are the rare and fascinating visions of a magnificent past where Tarquinia imposed itself as one of the most
flourishing centres of the Etruscan Civilisation especially in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE.

Vulci
The Tombs of Vulci date from the 8th Century BCE. The frescoes of one of its tombs,
called the "François Tomb" after its discoverer, are unique in that they show early
scenes from Etruscan history. These paintings, which date from the 4th-3rd century,
were detached and taken to the Museo Torlonia in Rome. From other tombs came
remarkable stone sculptures and imported Greek vases.

Four necropolises dating from the 8th century BCE have been found around the city of
Vulci.

The tombs of the 6th and 5th centuries BCE are generally of the sarcophagus type. Only
a few inhumations are to be found, including the large tumulus of the "cuccumella".
The habit of placing statues of imaginary animals to guard the tombs is characteristic
of Vulci.

Immensely rich burial treasures have been found in these tombs, in particular a large
number of ceramics of Greek production, and bronze objects of local production.

In the second half of the 4th century BCE, the tombs became of the hypogeal type and
reproduce the shapes of the dwellings.

The most well-known of these hypogea is the François tomb, famous for its paintings
(now at Villa Albani in Rome) portraying, as well as the deceased, episodes from Greek
mythology together with characters from Etruscan myths and history.

Architecture
5th century BC

Temple of Castor and Pollux

The Temple of Castor and Pollux is an ancient
edifice in the Roman Forum , Rome , central Italy .
It was originally built in gratitude for victory at
the Battle of Lake Regillus (495 BC ). Castor and
Pollux (Greek Polydeuces) were the Dioscuri , the
"twins" of Gemini , the twin sons of Zeus (Jupiter )
and Leda . Their cult came to Rome from Greece
via Magna Graecia and the Greek culture of
Southern Italy.

Location Regione VIII Forum
Romanum

Built in 495 BC
Built by/for Unknown builder
Type of structure Roman Temple
.

According to Edward Gibbon, the
temple of Castor served as a secret
meeting place for the Roman Senate.
He said the senate was roused to
rebellion against Emperor Maximinus
Thrax and in favor of future
emperor Gordian I at the Temple of
Castor in 237 AD.

The temple was still standing intact in
the 4th century, but nothing is known of
its subsequent history, except that in
the 15th century, only three columns of
its original structure were still standing.
The Temple of Castor and Pollux (right) with the
The street running by the building was
Temple of Vesta to the left
called via Trium Columnarum.
Architecture
The octostyle temple was peripteral, with eight Corinthian columns at the short sides
and eleven on the long sides. There was a single cella paved with mosaics. The
podium measures 32×49.5m and 7m in height. The building was constructed in opus
caementicium and originally covered with slabs of tuff which were later removed.
According to ancient sources the temple had a single central stairway to access the
podium, but excavations have identified two side stairs

Temple of Saturn
The Temple of Saturn is a monument to the
agricultural deity. The Temple of Saturn
stands at the foot of the Capitaline hill in
the western end of the Forum Romanum
in Rome, Italy

Interior
According to the sources, the statue Location Regione VIII Forum
of the god in the interior, veiled and Romanum
provided with a scythe, was wooden
and filled with oil. The legs were
covered with linen bents, which Built in 497 BC
were released only on December
17, the day of the Saturnalia. Built by/for Tarquinius Superbus

Type of structure Roman temple

While dedicated to the god Saturn, the
temple's chief use was as the seat of
the treasury of the Roman Republic
,storing the Republic's reserves
of gold and silver. Also the state
archives, the insignia and the official
scale for the weighing of metals were
housed in the temple

. Later, the aerarium was moved to
another building, while the archives
were transferred to the nearby
Tabularium. The temple's podium, in
concrete covered with travertine ,
was used for bill-posting.

All Roads Lead to Rome
The road system of the Ancient Romans was one of the greatest engineering
accomplishments of its time, with over 50,000 miles of paved road radiating from
their center at the miliarius aurem in the Forum in the city of Rome
the roads were used for trade. The Romans were the first ancient civilization to
build paved roads, which did not prevent travel during or after inclement weather.
Roman engineers, however, did not stop with just paving Roman roads. Roads were
crowned—that is, they were higher in the middle than on the sides to allow water
to run off—and they often had gutters for drainage along the shoulders. Probably
the most incredible engineering feat concerning the Roman road system, though, is
how well the roads were built. Many are still major thoroughfares for cars today.
Indeed, their road-building methods were unsurpassed until the invention of the
macadam in the 19th century.

Architecture
4 th century bc

Appian Way
An expanding network of roads helped to link
Rome's distant territories.

One of the most important paved military
roads was the Appian Way, commissioned by
the Roman official Appius Claudius Caecus. It
became the major route from Rome to
Greece.

Although these large lava blocks may not be
the original material, the route itself has
remained unchanged and in use since it was
first paved more than 2200 years ago.

There was nothing like it and without it Rome could not have won its tremendous
empire. The use of cemented stone blocks has preserved it to the present day.
Roman roads were built so well that some are still in use today. They built their roads in
this manner: from bottom to top they contained rubble, flat slabs in mortar, concrete
and gravel, and tightly laid flat paving stones. Each road had its own curb (curb stones)
and a drainage ditch.

Aqueduct
Among the other great public building
projects of the Romans, the most noteworthy
are the network of bridges and roads that
facilitated travel throughout the empire, and
the aqueducts that brought water to the
towns from mountain sources (Pont du Gard,
late 1st century bc or early 1st century ad,
near Nimes).

The Roman aqueduct at Pont du Gard near
Nîmes, France, was built between the late 1st
century bc and the early 1st century ad. The
Romans built extensive systems of aqueducts
to carry water to their residential areas from
distant sources.

Aqua Appia
The Aqua Appia was the first Roman aqueduct. It
was constructed in 312 BC by Appius Claudius
Caecus , the same Roman censor who also built the
important Via Appia . Its source, which Frontinus
identifies as being about 780 paces away from via
Praenestina , was allegedly established by Caius
Plautius Venox.
The Aqua Appia flowed for 16.4 km into the city
of Rome through the Porta Maggiore , and emptied
into the Forum Boarium , near the Porta Trigemina.
Nearly all of its length was underground, which was
necessary because of the relative heights of its
source and destination, and afforded it protection
from attackers during the Samnite Wars that were
underway during its construction. It dropped only 10
m over its entire length, making it a remarkable
engineering achievement for its day.
Frontinus calculates that the aqueduct was capable
of delivering 73,000 cubic meters of water a day into
Rome.

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
In 377 B.C., the city of Halicarnassus was the
capitol of a small kingdom along the
Mediterranean coast of Asia Minor. It was in
that year the ruler of this land, Hecatomnus of
Mylasa, died and left control of the kingdom to
his son, Mausoleums. Hecatomnus, a local
satrap to the Persians, had been ambitious and
had taken control of several of the neighboring
cities and districts. Then Mausolus during his
reign extended the territory even further so
that it eventually included most of
southwestern Asia Minor.
Mausolus, with his queen Artemisia, ruled over
Halicarnassus and the surrounding territory
for 24 years. Though he was descended from
the local people, Mausolus spoke Greek and
admired the Greek way of life and government.
He founded many cities of Greek design along
the coast and encouraged Greek democratic
traditions.

then in 353 B.C. Mausolus died, leaving his queen
Artemisia, who was also his sister, broken-hearted (It was
the custom in Caria for rulers to marry their own sisters).
As a tribute to him, she decided to build him the most
splendid tomb in the known world. It became a structure so
famous that Mausolus's name is now associated with all
stately tombs throughout the world through the
word mausoleum. The building, rich with statuary and
carvings in relief, was so beautiful and unique it became
one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
Artemisia decided that no expense was to be spared in the
building of the tomb. She sent messengers to Greece to find
the most talented artists of the time. These included
architects Satyros and Pytheos who designed the overall
shape of the tomb. Other famous sculptors invited to
contribute to the project were Bryaxis, Leochares,
Timotheus and Scopas of Paros .
According to the historian Pliny Bryaxis, Leochares,
Timotheus and Scopas each took one side of the tomb to
decorate. Joining these sculptors were also hundreds of
other workmen and craftsmen. Together they finished the This lion is among the few free-
building in the styles of three different cultures: Egyptian, standing sculptures from the
Greek and Lycian. Mausoleum at the British
Museum.

Architecture
3rd century BC

Circus Maximus
The Circus Maximus was the largest stadium in ancient Rome. At one point the Circus
could seat 250.000 people, one quarter of Rome's population.

Early History
Chariot races were one of the Roman's
most popular form of entertainment.
Romulus, the first of Rome's seven kings, is
said to have held chariot races.
The origins of the Circus Maximus go back
to the 6th century BC when Tarquinius
Priscus, the fifth king of Rome, created a
track between the Palatine and Aventine
hills. The first permanent starting gates
were created in 329 BC. In 174 BC the
gates were rebuilt and seven wooden eggs
were placed on top of the spina, the
central wall in the arena. The eggs were
used to count the number of laps; after
each lap one egg was removed. In 33 BC
seven bronze dolphins were added to the
spina for the same purpose.

Wooden Structures
A fire in 31 BC, the first of three, destroyed the
wooden structure. It was rebuilt by emperor
Augustus who also added an imperial box on the
palatine hill. A large obelisk from Heliopolis was
added to the spina as a decoration. The obelisk
can now be found at the center of the Piazza del
Popolo. Another obelisk was added much later, in
the 4th century.
A second fire, in AD 64, which started in wooden
shops at the bottom around the track started the
fire that burned much of Rome during the reign
of emperor Nero.

The Marble Stadium
After yet another fire the Circus was rebuilt by Trajan in AD 103. The Roman empire was
at the height of its power and the new Circus Maximus reflected this status. The Circus
was now a stone construction, three stories high. The lower part of the cavea (seating
area) was built in marble. The arena complex was now more than 600m long and 150m
wide (2000x500ft).

Popular Events
The Circus Maximus was occasionally used for
events such as processions or gladiator
combats, but on most days only chariot races
with quadrigaes, pulled by four horses, were
held here. The races themselves were wildly
popular with people fanatically supporting
one of the four factions: red, white, green and
blue representing summer, winter, spring and
autumn respectively. Bets were laid on one of
the factions and supporters of the different
factions often clashed, sometimes resulting in
deaths among the spectators.

The Last Race
The last race at the Circus Maximus was held
in AD 549, almost a millennium after the first
races were held at this location. Today only
the layout of the original circus can be seen in
what is now a large grassland. Most of the
original structure has been used as building
material for medieval and Renaissance
constructions.

The Colossus of Rhodes
Travelers to the New York City harbor see a
marvelous sight. Standing on a small island in the
harbor is an immense statue of a robed woman,
holding a book and lifting a torch to the sky. The
statue measures almost one-hundred and twenty
feet from foot to crown. It is sometimes referred
to as the "Modern Colossus," but more often
called the Statue of Liberty.
This awe-inspiring statue was a gift from France to
America and is easily recognized by people
around the world. What many visitors to this
shrine to freedom don't know is that the statue,
the "Modern Colossus," is the echo of another
statue, the original colossus, that stood over two
thousand years ago at the entrance to another
busy harbor on the Island of Rhodes. Like the
Statue of Liberty, this colossus was also built as a
celebration of freedom. This amazing statue,
standing the same height from toe to head as the
modern colossus, was one of the Seven Wonders
of the Ancient World.

The Colossus of Rhodes was a statue of the
Greek Titan Helios, erected in the city
of Rhodes on the Greek island of Rhodes
by Chares of Lindos between 292 and 280
BC. It is considered one of the Seven
Wonders of the Ancient World. It was
constructed to celebrate Rhodes' victory
over the ruler of Cyprus, Antigonus I
Monophthalmus, who unsuccessfully
besieged Rhodes in 305 BC. Before its
destruction, the Colossus of Rhodes stood
over 30 meters (107 ft) high, making it one
of the tallest statues of the ancient world

Architecture
2 nd century BC

Basilica
The basilica was a roofed hall with a wide
central area—the nave—flanked by side aisles,
and it often had two or more stories.
In Roman times basilicas were the site of
business transactions and legal proceedings,
but the building type was adapted in Christian
times as the standard form of the Western
church with an apse and altar at the end of the
long nave.
The first basilicas were put up in the early 2nd
century b.c. in Rome's own Forum, but the
earliest well-preserved example of the basilicas
(circa 120 b.c.) is found at Pompeii.
This Roman basilica was begun by the emperor
Maxentius between 307 and 310 and
completed by Constantine the Great after 312.

Although it was one of the most important
monuments in classical antiquity, almost all
that remains of the building are these three
huge, barrel-vaulted bays

ANCIENT BASILLICA OF AGIA SOPHIA – ROME

ANCIENT BACILICA AEMILIA NEAR ROMAN FORUM

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
100 BC

TABULARIUM ROME
The Tabularium is a building that housed
important documents and decrees in ancient
Rome.

To fully understand the significance of the
Tabularium, one must remember that this
was the place where deeds, records and
laws were housed.

To put it in modern day terms, this was the
National Archives of ancient Rome.

Those who wanted to study the documents
would have gone to the Tabularium as well
as those looking for some particular piece of
information.

In addition, new filings would have been
handled by clerks there, and a number of
public officials kept offices in the
Tabularium.

PLAN OF ROMAN CITY SHOWING TABULARIUM

Architecture
0 AD - 100 AD

Pantheon
Roman temples were erected not only in the
forum, but throughout the city and in the
countryside as well; many other types are
known.
One of the most influential in later times was
the type used for the Pantheon (ad 118-28) in
Rome, consisting of a standard gable-roofed
columnar porch with a domed cylindrical
drum behind it replacing the traditional
rectangular main room, or cella.

The Pantheon in Rome is one of the most
famous buildings in the world. It was
commissioned by Hadrian in 118 and
completed in 128. At one time it had a
colonnaded court leading to the portico.

The dome of the rotunda behind the portico is
43.2 m (142 ft) in diameter. The oculus (a
round opening) at the top is 8.5 m (28 ft) in
diameter and provides the only source of light
for the interior.

Roman engineers completed the Pantheon, a
temple to all the gods, in ad 128. Its interior
was conceived as a single immense space
illuminated by a single round opening, called
an oculus, at the highest point in the dome.

The interior is decorated with colored marble,
and lined with pairs of columns and carved
figures set into niches in the wall.

Roman Theaters
Roman theaters first appeared in the late
Republic.
They were semicircular in plan and consisted
of a tall stage building abutting a
semicircular orchestra and tiered seating
area (cavea).

Unlike Greek theaters, which were situated
on natural slopes, Roman theaters were
supported by their own framework of piers
and vaults and thus could be constructed in
the hearts of cities.
The Roman emperor Augustus founded the
city of Aosta during the 1st century b.c near
the junction of natural transportation routes
from Italy through the mountains to France
and Switzerland.

The city has many remnants of Roman
architecture, including wall segments from
this theater.

Amphitheater
Amphitheaters (literally , double
theaters) were elliptical in plan
with a central arena, where
gladiatorial and animal combats
took place, and a surrounding
seating area built on the pattern
of Roman theaters.
The earliest known amphitheater
(75 bc) Is at Pompeii, and the
grandest, Rome's Colosseum
(ad70-80) , held approximately
50,000 spectators , roughly the
capacity of today's large sports
stadiums.
The Colosseum in Rome (70-82) is best known for its multilevel system of vaults
made of concrete.

It is called the Colosseum for a colossal statue of Nero that once stood nearby, but
its real name is the Flavian Amphitheater.

It was used for staged battles between lions and Christians, among other
spectacles, and is one of the most famous pieces of architecture in the world.

Roman empire

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