Abstract:
Introduction: The several ways that thermal energy is transferred from one place to another are referred to as the principle of heat transfer.
This process is known as radiation heat transfer.
The transfer of energy by thermal radiation, or electromagnetic waves, is known as radiant heat transfer.
A convection current is created when heated air rises and is replaced by colder air, transferring heat from the inner pane to the outside pane(s).
Heat is carried via the window frame in triple-glazing units; convection is minor in double-glazing units up to 20 mm, especially when argon gas is used, which is denser than air.
Heat transfer through buildings rooms and roofs: Even while convection often involves more variables than conduction, we are nevertheless able to characterize it and do some simple, accurate calculations to determine its effects.
Figure 7 illustrates each of the three heat transmission techniques in this portion of the attic.
This natural convection heating system, when correctly built, may be quite effective in heating a home evenly.
Environmental Heat Transfer
4
Introduction:
The several ways that thermal energy is transferred from one place to another are referred to as the principle of heat transfer. There are three main ways that heat travels through building assemblies: radiation, convection, and conduction. One or more of these mechanisms may be involved in a specific thermal energy transfer. Phase transitions also release or absorb heat through three processes: conduction, radiation, and convection. Examples of this include heat transfer from walls to rooms, from fluids to each other, between pipes, and from outside heat to dwellings. The types of heat transport are described in Figure 1. a (concept group LLC, 2023)
Figure 1: types of transferring heat. (energy saver, 2023)
Temperature and heat are not the same thing. Temperature is a measurement of the intensity of kinetic energy, which is what heat is. Consider two water containers, one holding 10 gallons and the other one holding 1 gallon, to demonstrate this. Both containers hold 50°F water. The bigger container retains ten times more heat than the smaller one, even if they are of the same temperature. Because it has a greater capacity, the larger container can hold more heat. (Clayton DeKorne, 2023)
Building heat transfer calculations are performed for different applications such as: (Kusuda T., 1977)
• heat transmission via the outer envelope, the basement walls, the slab-on-grade floor (to a semi-infinite zone),
• transmission, absorption, and reflection of short wavelengths (or solar heat) for openings.
• thermal storage in the external masses of structures.
Environmental Heat Transfer
5
• air leakage via outside envelopes as well as the interior partition walls, ceilings, and floors.
Interior environmental analyses-:
• radiant heat transfer between heat sinks or sources and interior surfaces,
• the transfer of heat convectively between interior surfaces an
Introduction
Mechanism of Heat Flow
Conduction
Heat Flow through a Cylinder-Conduction
Conduction through fluids
Convection
Film type condensation
Cold liquid-boiling of liquids
Modes of Feed-Heat Transfer
Thermal Radiation
Black Body
Grey body
Equipments
References
2.1 Heat
Heat is a form of energy. According to the principle of thermodynamics whenever a physical or chemical transformation occurs heat flow into or leaves the system.
A number of sources of heat are used for industrial scale operations steam and electric power is the chief sources to transfer heat. It is essential to cover steam without any loses to the apparatus in which it is used. The study of heat transfer processes helps in be signing the plant efficiently and economically
2.2 Heat Transfer:-
Work is one of the basic modes of energy transfer in machines the action of force on a moving body is identified as work. The work is done by a force as it acts upon a body moving in the direction of the force.
Work transfer is considered as occurring between the system and the surroundings work is said to be done by a system is the sole effect on things external to the system can be reduced to the raising of a weight.
If a system has a non-adiabatic boundary its temperature is not independent of the temperature of the surroundings and for the system between the states 1 and 2 the work w depends on path and the differential d-w is inexact. The work depends on the terminal state 1 and 2 as well as non-adiabatic path connecting them. For consistency with the principle of conservation of energy. Some type of energy transfer must have occurred because of the temperature difference between the system and its surroundings and it is identified as heat thus when an effect in a system occurs solely as result of temperature difference between the system and some other system the process in which the effect occur shall be called a transfer of heat from the system at the higher temperature to the system at the lower temperature.
1.1 Evaporation
1.2 Distillation
1.3 Drying
1.4 Crystallization
1.5 Sterilization
Application of Heat Transfer in Pharmaceuticals Industries
Very useful for the beginners in the field of heat and the mass transfer field. It also gives the idea about the different modes of heat transfer and the measurement of energy transfer rate.
Introduction
Mechanism of Heat Flow
Conduction
Heat Flow through a Cylinder-Conduction
Conduction through fluids
Convection
Film type condensation
Cold liquid-boiling of liquids
Modes of Feed-Heat Transfer
Thermal Radiation
Black Body
Grey body
Equipments
References
2.1 Heat
Heat is a form of energy. According to the principle of thermodynamics whenever a physical or chemical transformation occurs heat flow into or leaves the system.
A number of sources of heat are used for industrial scale operations steam and electric power is the chief sources to transfer heat. It is essential to cover steam without any loses to the apparatus in which it is used. The study of heat transfer processes helps in be signing the plant efficiently and economically
2.2 Heat Transfer:-
Work is one of the basic modes of energy transfer in machines the action of force on a moving body is identified as work. The work is done by a force as it acts upon a body moving in the direction of the force.
Work transfer is considered as occurring between the system and the surroundings work is said to be done by a system is the sole effect on things external to the system can be reduced to the raising of a weight.
If a system has a non-adiabatic boundary its temperature is not independent of the temperature of the surroundings and for the system between the states 1 and 2 the work w depends on path and the differential d-w is inexact. The work depends on the terminal state 1 and 2 as well as non-adiabatic path connecting them. For consistency with the principle of conservation of energy. Some type of energy transfer must have occurred because of the temperature difference between the system and its surroundings and it is identified as heat thus when an effect in a system occurs solely as result of temperature difference between the system and some other system the process in which the effect occur shall be called a transfer of heat from the system at the higher temperature to the system at the lower temperature.
1.1 Evaporation
1.2 Distillation
1.3 Drying
1.4 Crystallization
1.5 Sterilization
Application of Heat Transfer in Pharmaceuticals Industries
Very useful for the beginners in the field of heat and the mass transfer field. It also gives the idea about the different modes of heat transfer and the measurement of energy transfer rate.
An introductory outline of the Physics of Heat. I created this presentation at Curtin Sarawak Malaysia as a basis for Foundation Physics students and others to edit and expand. Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Malaysia License.
An introductory outline of the Physics of Heat. I created this presentation at Curtin Sarawak Malaysia as a basis for Foundation Physics students and others to edit and expand. A Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike License.
As companies examine their total cost of operations, energy usage and heat recovery deliver cost savings through increased energy utilization and efficiency. Heat exchangers offer companies the opportunity to reuse energy generated for a specific purpose instead of venting that energy to the atmosphere. Shell and tube heat exchangers are in wide use throughout the Food, Dairy, Beverage, Pharmaceutical, Chemicals, Petroleum Refining, and Utility industries. This paper briefly explores three modes of heat transfer and basic designs found in shell and tube heat exchangers. Also included are several case studies from different industries where
Enerquip’s heat exchangers have saved the operators energy and money.
design of passive down draft cool tower for 100 m2 auditoriumINFOGAIN PUBLICATION
A passive down draft evaporative cooling (PDEC) tower is design to capture the wind at high temperature typically at 40ο C and above the top of tower and cool the outdoor air using water which is allowed to flow through shower and due to evaporation of water out door air gets cooled. Many different types of PDEC exist. This paper explains design of PDEC tower. It is a parallel flow heat exchanger with hot and cold fluid are in direct contact with each other. The wet bulb temperature of air is the lowest possible temperature of the air leaving the tower and entering in air conditioned space. It is suitable in hot dry climate due to large difference between dry and wet bulb temperatures. The mathematical model predicted with the variation of wind speed from 1 m/s to 6 m/s with outside air temperature 35 ο C and relative humidity 20 %, a tower height of 6 m is required.
Aim:
The aim of this experiment is to determine the conversion of our reactants by using conductivity meter in the reactor which the reaction takes place which is a CSTR reactor.
Introduction:
In our experiment a reaction takes place between two reactants in a CSTR reactor, first reactant is the strong base (NaOH) and second reactant is the weak Acid which is (CH3CO2CH2CH3) to produce (CH3COONa) and (CH3CH2OH) and water.
But since one of reactant is weak (CH3CO2CH2CH3) this means our reactants won't fully react and convert into our product which means we don't have a 100% conversion like we have between two strong reactants.
So, in order to find conversion, we have to divide the concentration of the reactants reacted by the concentration of the reactant in our reactor as the term of conversion suggests.
In order to find concentration, we use conductivity meter which measures the amount of free ions in our reactor.
This way can find conductivity to find concentration which gives us the key to find conversion.
4
Tools:
o CSTR reactor:
Our CSTR reactor is continuous and we add the reactants together continuously. Before the reactants run out, we read the (λ) ،And we read the (T) . Our reactor has a capacity of one liter ، and has a thermometer ، and has a vent valve.
5
o Conductivity meter:
Is a tool to measure the amount of free ions in a liquid or solution which uses a small amount of electricity to use how much ions will carry the charge.
6
o service unit:
Our service unit for this experience holds the both of the tanks of both reactants, and the pumps which is needed for each tank to the inlet of the reactor.
7
o Control unit:
For this experiment the control unit provides power and electricity to our reactor But not the conductivity meter because it works on its own.
o Tank:
The tank provide store service to our reactant before being added to our reactor, which is located in unit service.
8
o Pumps:
The pumps are our helpful tool which add our reactants to the reactor, which is located in unit service but is controlled in and turned on and off in control unit.
9
Procedure:
1.Temperature sensor Ts.4/on T=18: reaction Dane isothermally.
2. stirrer A A1 on
3. Flow rate: on both reactants should inter in The reactor at The same Flow rate Conversion is not Function of Flow rate in This experiment
4. vent valve: It is opened when the reactants. reach The level needs to be closed.
5. The level adjust into another tank over Flow draining it.
6. when continuously adjusting level occurred Conductivity is read when It becomes constant in The conductivity meter.
Aim of the experiment
“The aim of this experiment is to determine the amount of heat loss from hot water by
parallel flow current in the pipes of the heat exchanger.”
Double Pipe Heat Exchanger. 3
Chemical Engineering Department.
Stage III
Introduction to double pipe heat exchangers
A double pipe heat exchanger, also known as a hairpin heat exchanger, is a type of heat
exchanger used to transfer heat between two fluids. It consists of two concentric pipes,
one inside the other, forming a “U” or “hairpin” shape. One fluid flows through the inner
pipe, while the other flows through the annular space between the inner and outer pipes.
This design allows for efficient heat transfer between the two fluids, making it suitable for
various applications, such as cooling or heating processes in industrial systems.
Types of flows in double pipe heat exchangers
In a double pipe heat exchanger, there are two primary flow arrangements, each with its
variations, however, we are going to be focusing on two simple arrangements only, as
they would suffice to comprehend the basic ideas behind double pipe heat exchangers.
One flow arrangement is called “parallel flow” and the other is called “counter flow”.
The latter will be explained in our next experiment.
Parallel flow or uni-flow: in this type of flow, both the hot and cold fluids flow in the
same direction, entering one end of the inner pipe and exiting the other end. This
arrangement is simple but generally less efficient for heat transfer because the
temperature difference between the two fluids decreases along the length of the
exchanger.
Figure 1: simple parallel flow diagram.
By “Research Gate”
Double Pipe Heat Exchanger. 4
Chemical Engineering Department.
Stage III
However, when there’s a significant temperature difference between the two fluids at the
inlet, parallel flow heat exchangers can be more efficient for heat transfer. Both
arrangements have advantages and disadvantages and are used depending on the
system requirements.
Theoretical calculation for heat transfer in double pipe heat
exchangers
Heat Transfer: Heat transfer is the process of the exchange of thermal energy between
two objects or systems that are at different temperatures, and the heat energy always
flows from the high temperature object or system to the low ones because the entropy of
an isolated system can never decrease.
There are several ways to calculate the amount of heat added or lost by an object or a
system. However, in this experiment a relatively simple equation can be used to
determine the amount of heat lost from the hot water, which is equal to the amount of
heat added to the cold water.
When pressure is held constant throughout the process, the amount of heat transfer will
be equal to the change in enthalpy of the system and therefore can be calculated using
constant pressure enthalpy change equation.
Q=ΔH=mCpΔT
Where:
Q=ΔH is the amount of heat transferred to or from the system (J).
m: mass of the system (Kg)
Cp: cons
An introductory outline of the Physics of Heat. I created this presentation at Curtin Sarawak Malaysia as a basis for Foundation Physics students and others to edit and expand. Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Malaysia License.
An introductory outline of the Physics of Heat. I created this presentation at Curtin Sarawak Malaysia as a basis for Foundation Physics students and others to edit and expand. A Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike License.
As companies examine their total cost of operations, energy usage and heat recovery deliver cost savings through increased energy utilization and efficiency. Heat exchangers offer companies the opportunity to reuse energy generated for a specific purpose instead of venting that energy to the atmosphere. Shell and tube heat exchangers are in wide use throughout the Food, Dairy, Beverage, Pharmaceutical, Chemicals, Petroleum Refining, and Utility industries. This paper briefly explores three modes of heat transfer and basic designs found in shell and tube heat exchangers. Also included are several case studies from different industries where
Enerquip’s heat exchangers have saved the operators energy and money.
design of passive down draft cool tower for 100 m2 auditoriumINFOGAIN PUBLICATION
A passive down draft evaporative cooling (PDEC) tower is design to capture the wind at high temperature typically at 40ο C and above the top of tower and cool the outdoor air using water which is allowed to flow through shower and due to evaporation of water out door air gets cooled. Many different types of PDEC exist. This paper explains design of PDEC tower. It is a parallel flow heat exchanger with hot and cold fluid are in direct contact with each other. The wet bulb temperature of air is the lowest possible temperature of the air leaving the tower and entering in air conditioned space. It is suitable in hot dry climate due to large difference between dry and wet bulb temperatures. The mathematical model predicted with the variation of wind speed from 1 m/s to 6 m/s with outside air temperature 35 ο C and relative humidity 20 %, a tower height of 6 m is required.
Aim:
The aim of this experiment is to determine the conversion of our reactants by using conductivity meter in the reactor which the reaction takes place which is a CSTR reactor.
Introduction:
In our experiment a reaction takes place between two reactants in a CSTR reactor, first reactant is the strong base (NaOH) and second reactant is the weak Acid which is (CH3CO2CH2CH3) to produce (CH3COONa) and (CH3CH2OH) and water.
But since one of reactant is weak (CH3CO2CH2CH3) this means our reactants won't fully react and convert into our product which means we don't have a 100% conversion like we have between two strong reactants.
So, in order to find conversion, we have to divide the concentration of the reactants reacted by the concentration of the reactant in our reactor as the term of conversion suggests.
In order to find concentration, we use conductivity meter which measures the amount of free ions in our reactor.
This way can find conductivity to find concentration which gives us the key to find conversion.
4
Tools:
o CSTR reactor:
Our CSTR reactor is continuous and we add the reactants together continuously. Before the reactants run out, we read the (λ) ،And we read the (T) . Our reactor has a capacity of one liter ، and has a thermometer ، and has a vent valve.
5
o Conductivity meter:
Is a tool to measure the amount of free ions in a liquid or solution which uses a small amount of electricity to use how much ions will carry the charge.
6
o service unit:
Our service unit for this experience holds the both of the tanks of both reactants, and the pumps which is needed for each tank to the inlet of the reactor.
7
o Control unit:
For this experiment the control unit provides power and electricity to our reactor But not the conductivity meter because it works on its own.
o Tank:
The tank provide store service to our reactant before being added to our reactor, which is located in unit service.
8
o Pumps:
The pumps are our helpful tool which add our reactants to the reactor, which is located in unit service but is controlled in and turned on and off in control unit.
9
Procedure:
1.Temperature sensor Ts.4/on T=18: reaction Dane isothermally.
2. stirrer A A1 on
3. Flow rate: on both reactants should inter in The reactor at The same Flow rate Conversion is not Function of Flow rate in This experiment
4. vent valve: It is opened when the reactants. reach The level needs to be closed.
5. The level adjust into another tank over Flow draining it.
6. when continuously adjusting level occurred Conductivity is read when It becomes constant in The conductivity meter.
Aim of the experiment
“The aim of this experiment is to determine the amount of heat loss from hot water by
parallel flow current in the pipes of the heat exchanger.”
Double Pipe Heat Exchanger. 3
Chemical Engineering Department.
Stage III
Introduction to double pipe heat exchangers
A double pipe heat exchanger, also known as a hairpin heat exchanger, is a type of heat
exchanger used to transfer heat between two fluids. It consists of two concentric pipes,
one inside the other, forming a “U” or “hairpin” shape. One fluid flows through the inner
pipe, while the other flows through the annular space between the inner and outer pipes.
This design allows for efficient heat transfer between the two fluids, making it suitable for
various applications, such as cooling or heating processes in industrial systems.
Types of flows in double pipe heat exchangers
In a double pipe heat exchanger, there are two primary flow arrangements, each with its
variations, however, we are going to be focusing on two simple arrangements only, as
they would suffice to comprehend the basic ideas behind double pipe heat exchangers.
One flow arrangement is called “parallel flow” and the other is called “counter flow”.
The latter will be explained in our next experiment.
Parallel flow or uni-flow: in this type of flow, both the hot and cold fluids flow in the
same direction, entering one end of the inner pipe and exiting the other end. This
arrangement is simple but generally less efficient for heat transfer because the
temperature difference between the two fluids decreases along the length of the
exchanger.
Figure 1: simple parallel flow diagram.
By “Research Gate”
Double Pipe Heat Exchanger. 4
Chemical Engineering Department.
Stage III
However, when there’s a significant temperature difference between the two fluids at the
inlet, parallel flow heat exchangers can be more efficient for heat transfer. Both
arrangements have advantages and disadvantages and are used depending on the
system requirements.
Theoretical calculation for heat transfer in double pipe heat
exchangers
Heat Transfer: Heat transfer is the process of the exchange of thermal energy between
two objects or systems that are at different temperatures, and the heat energy always
flows from the high temperature object or system to the low ones because the entropy of
an isolated system can never decrease.
There are several ways to calculate the amount of heat added or lost by an object or a
system. However, in this experiment a relatively simple equation can be used to
determine the amount of heat lost from the hot water, which is equal to the amount of
heat added to the cold water.
When pressure is held constant throughout the process, the amount of heat transfer will
be equal to the change in enthalpy of the system and therefore can be calculated using
constant pressure enthalpy change equation.
Q=ΔH=mCpΔT
Where:
Q=ΔH is the amount of heat transferred to or from the system (J).
m: mass of the system (Kg)
Cp: cons
Aim:
The aim of this experiment is to determine the conversion of our reactants by using conductivity meter in the reactor which the reaction takes place which is a batch reactor
Introduction:
In our experiment a reaction takes place between two reactants in a batch reactor, first reactant is the strong base (NaOH) and second reactant is the weak Acid which is (CH3COOH) to produce (CH3COONA) and water.
But since one of reactant is weak ( CH3COOH ) this means our reactants won’t fully react and convert into our product which means we don’t have a 100% conversion like we have between two strong reactants.
So, in order to find conversion we have to divide the concentration of the reactants reacted by the concentration of the reactant in our reactor as the term of conversion suggests.
In order to find concentration, we use conductivity meter which measures the amount of free ions in our reactor.
This way can find conductivity to find concentration which gives us the key to find conversion.
4
Tools:
Batch reactor
The reactor is not continuous we add the reactants and wait for the reaction to accrue, our reactor has 1L capacity
The batch reactor has other parts to its like thermometer which is plugged and can be dead from service unit
Conductivity meter
Is a tool to measure the amount of free ions in a liquid or solution which uses a small amount of electricity to use how much ions will carry the charge
5
Service unit
Our service unit for this experience holds the both of the tanks of both reactants, and the pumps which is needed for each tank to the inlet of the reactor
6
Control unit
For this experiment the control unit provides power and electricity to our reactor
But not the conductivity meter because it works on its own
Tank
The tank provide store service to our reactant before being added to our reactor, which is located in unit service.
7
Pumps
The pumps are our helpful tool which add our reactants to the reactor, which is located in unit service but is controlled in and turned on and off in control unit.
8
Procedure:
Before experiment: We make sure our units are ready
1 service unit
-the tanks for each reactant are filled with half a liter of its reactant so it gives us the concentration of 0.05M and 1 Liter of solution in the reactor
-The tubes must be connected well from tank to pump and to the reactor correctly and there isn’t any leak.
2 control unit
-the wire of the reactor must be plugged into its main power source on the control box as well as its temperature sensor to its right power source
-making sure both the temperature of the room is stable because heat will affect the reactor and cause inaccuracies
-making sure the conductivity meter is connected to our reactor.
During the experiment
-Switch on the control unit main power switch
-which on the conductivity meter
-switch on the pump of the base reactant and wait till the pump sends all the reactant into the reactor then we stop the first pump
-we switch on the second pump which is t
reactor design lab continuous stirred tank reactorDimaJawhar
Aim:
The aim of this experiment is to determine the conversion of our reactants by using conductivity meter in the reactor which the reaction takes place which is a CSTR reactor.
Introduction:
In our experiment a reaction takes place between two reactants in a CSTR reactor, first reactant is the strong base (NaOH) and second reactant is the weak Acid which is (CH3CO2CH2CH3) to produce (CH3COONa) and (CH3CH2OH) and water.
But since one of reactant is weak (CH3CO2CH2CH3) this means our reactants won't fully react and convert into our product which means we don't have a 100% conversion like we have between two strong reactants.
So, in order to find conversion, we have to divide the concentration of the reactants reacted by the concentration of the reactant in our reactor as the term of conversion suggests.
In order to find concentration, we use conductivity meter which measures the amount of free ions in our reactor.
This way can find conductivity to find concentration which gives us the key to find conversion.
4
Tools:
o CSTR reactor:
Our CSTR reactor is continuous and we add the reactants together continuously. Before the reactants run out, we read the (λ) ،And we read the (T) . Our reactor has a capacity of one liter ، and has a thermometer ، and has a vent valve.
5
o Conductivity meter:
Is a tool to measure the amount of free ions in a liquid or solution which uses a small amount of electricity to use how much ions will carry the charge.
6
o service unit:
Our service unit for this experience holds the both of the tanks of both reactants, and the pumps which is needed for each tank to the inlet of the reactor.
7
o Control unit:
For this experiment the control unit provides power and electricity to our reactor But not the conductivity meter because it works on its own.
o Tank:
The tank provide store service to our reactant before being added to our reactor, which is located in unit service.
8
o Pumps:
The pumps are our helpful tool which add our reactants to the reactor, which is located in unit service but is controlled in and turned on and off in control unit.
9
Procedure:
1.Temperature sensor Ts.4/on T=18: reaction Dane isothermally.
2. stirrer A A1 on
3. Flow rate: on both reactants should inter in The reactor at The same Flow rate Conversion is not Function of Flow rate in This experiment
4. vent valve: It is opened when the reactants. reach The level needs to be closed.
5. The level adjust into another tank over Flow draining it.
6. when continuously adjusting level occurred Conductivity is read when It becomes constant in The conductivity meter.
10
Calculation:
11
Discussion:
Sntia louay
Discussion:
What is a continuous stirred tank reactor?
(CSTR) is a type of chemical reactor that is widely used in industrial processes to produce chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and other products.
Is concentration constant in a CSTR?
The essential idea involved in the operation of a CSTR is that, after the passage of sufficient time, the concentrations of the
Abstract A natural gas processing plant separates impurities, nonmethane hydrocarbons, and fluids to produce high-quality pipeline-quality dry natural gas, extracted from underground. Natural gas processing produces valuable byproducts like natural gas liquids (NGLs). The process involves four key steps: oil and condensate removal, water removal, separation of NGLs, and sulfur and carbon dioxide removal. The primary procedures include planning, extraction, separation, removal, and storage. Natural gas sweetening removes CO2 and H2S from natural gas. It involves an amine scrubbing procedure, ensuring H2S and CO2 concentrations are below tariff limits. offers reliable solutions for natural gas sweetening applications. Water is present in natural gas, either in liquid or vapor form. Safe gas processing requires reducing and controlling its water content. .
Natural Gas Processing
4 | P a g e
Introduction
A natural gas processing plant is a facility designed to provide clean raw natural gas by separating impurities, various nonmethane hydrocarbons and fluids to get high quality natural gas, what is known as pipeline-quality dry natural gas. (Speight, J. G.,2019)
Natural gas (or fossil gas) is hiding beneath the surface and extracted both from under the ocean and land. As shown in Figure 1. (Energy Insight, 2023)
Figure 1: Schematic geology of natural gas resources. (Energy Insight, 2023)
natural gas It typically includes heavier hydrocarbons like ethane, propane, normal butane, isobutane, etc. in addition to a significant amount of methane. Additionally, it frequently has a significant proportion of nonhydrocarbons in its raw form, including carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and nitrogen. Such substances as helium, carbonyl sulfide, and other forms of mercaptan are present in tiny quantities. In generally, it is also saturated with water. Some examples of the analysis of different types of gas are provided in Table 1.
Table 1: Typical Raw Gas Composition. (Mohammed Hamzah Msaed,2021)
Natural Gas Processing
5 | P a g e
Methodology
Natural gas processing yields associated hydrocarbons, sometimes referred to as "natural gas liquids" (NGLs), which can be extremely valuable byproducts. Natural gasoline, propane, butane, isobutane, and ethane are examples of NGLs. These (NGLs) can be purchased individually and are used for a number of purposes, such as improving oil recovery in oil wells, supplying raw materials to petrochemical or oil refineries, and serving as energy sources.
Although the actual process of processing natural gas to pipeline dry gas quality standards might be highly complicated, there are typically four key steps involved in order to eliminate the different impurities: (U.S. Department of Transportation, 2017)
• Oil and Condensate Removal
• Water Removal
• Separation of Natural Gas Liquids
• Sulfur and Carbon Dioxide Removal
While there are several procedures involved in the processing of natural gas, separation, dehydration, removal of ca
chemical industries: water treatment flocculation tankDimaJawhar
Introduction:
If river or lake water is not treated or sterilized beforehand, it is barely clean enough
for human consumption. To make groundwater suitable for drinking, it frequently
requires some sort of treatment. Preserving the community's health is the main goal of
water treatment. Naturally, chemicals and dangerous microbes must not be present in
potable water. The water should have almost little turbidity, be a transparent hue, and
have no flavor or odor that is undesirable. Water used for household purposes shouldn't
be caustic or leave unsightly stains and buildup on plumbing fittings.
Figure 1: water treatment process flow diagram.
Regarding Figure 1 For the purpose of cleaning sewage, water, and industrial wastes,
one crucial step is the development of suspended floes, which may be effectively
separated from the solution by settling or filtering. We refer to this process as
coagulation or flocculation. up to 1920, sanitation engineers had little knowledge of the
nature of the process and often confused it with mixing, which refers to the act of
releasing coagulating chemicals in a liquid to aid in the solution's creation. Since then,
it has been discovered that flocculation is a physical process that needs time and mild
disturbance. However, there hasn't been much advancement in the scientific
understanding of the underlying principles and their application to design.
water treatment: flocculation process
Page | 4
Coagulation and flocculation
flocculation involves adding a chemical coagulant to water, for the particles
to create bigger, easier-to-separate clumps.
suspended particles cannot be eliminated. Smaller and lighter particles settle out more
slowly in some cases not at all, whereas larger and heavier particles settle out more
quickly. For this reason, coagulation—a chemical process—usually occurs before it
reaches the sedimentation stage. To combine the non-settling particles into bigger,
heavier masses of solids known as floc, chemicals (coagulants) are introduced to the
water. The (coagulants) are added to the water to make the non-settling particles
together into bigger, heavier masses of solids called floc. Aluminum sulfate (alum) is a
commonly used coagulant for water purification and deep sanitizing Other chemicals,
such as ferric sulfate or sodium aluminate are also be used.
Figure 2: A coagulant is used to minimize electric charges on the particles, to make it
easier to form the particles into clumps. However, it is not enough to settle the particles
out of solution.
water treatment: flocculation process
Page | 5
Oil emulsions will float to the top while suspended particles will sink to the bottom.
The removal of these contaminants during filtration will depend on how they precipitate
out of solution.
Any flocculated particles in the treated water can now be filtered out in the scenario
depicted above in Figure 2. These flocculated particles have now settled to the bottom
of the sedimentation chamber.
These particles ne
Aim:
To determine the heat loss in a double pipe heat exchanger counter-current flow
experiment.
Theory:
A double-pipe heat transfer exchanger consists of one or more pipes placed
concentrically inside another pipe of a larger diameter with appropriate fittings to direct
the flow from one section to the next. One fluid flows through the inner pipe (tube side)
in this experiment (hot water), and the other flows through the annular space (annulus)
(cold water).
The double-pipe heat exchanger is one of the basic kinds of exchangers with a very
flexible configuration. There are two types of counterflow or parallel flow for this type
that are the basis of design and calculation for determining pipe size, length, and
number of bends.
Double pipe heat exchanger counter current: heat is exchanged between two flowing
fluids at a different temperature that flows counter current in the heat exchanger double
pipe.
The efficiency is greater in counter-current than in parallel flow because the two fluids
(water) flow separately in counter-current flow when the high different temperatures
meet heat exchange rapidly due to the difference of temperatures, the hot water
becomes warm then cold as heat exchanges, and the cold water becomes warm the heat
exchange occurs till it reaches steady state. As it is explained in Figure 1.
Heat loss can be found by the equation below:
Q=ΔH=mCpΔT
Where: Q=ΔH is the amount of heat transferred to or from the system (J).
m: mass of the system (Kg)
Cp: constant pressure specific heat capacity of the system (J/g°C)
ΔT: difference in temperature of the system °C.
Experiment: Double pipe heat exchanger
4
Figure 1: concurrent and countercurrent respectively.
Procedure:
Double pipe heat exchanger: as shown in the figure-2:
1. Power switch: No.1
2. Temperature scale to select a temperature to heat the water in the tank [No.2] in
the figure.
3. Water tank a heating coil is used to heat the water [no.3].
4. Power pump to set a flow rate, the water is pumped through the double pipe heat
exchanger. [No.4]
5. A flow rate measurement is found in no.5
6. [No.6-7-8-9-10] The temperature measurements measure temperature
throughout the process.
7. Then the temperature and flow rate are collected in the temperature screen.
Experiment: Double pipe heat exchanger
5
Figure 2: double pipe heat exchanger.
Experiment: Double pipe heat exchanger
6
observation:
1. Turn on the device with the power switch.
2. The flow rate is set as 157 ml/s.
3. Heat water up to [40-50 Celsius] in this experiment: [44.4 Celsius] by the
heating coil in the water tank, set the desired temperature by the temperature
scale in the water tank.
4. Then water is pumped to the pipes by the power pump.
5. Adjust the valves so that the hot water and cold water flow countercurrent.
6. The hot water flows in the inner pipe in the double pipe through the pipe from
the pump to the heat exchanger
7. the cold water flows in the outer pipe counter current from the tank to the pipes
the valv
chemical industries cement industry rotary Kiln.2023.pdfDimaJawhar
Abstract:
The assignment describes the cement industry's processes. Cement is a fundamental
building and civil engineering material.
the stages of getting Portland cement is Crushing and grinding the raw materials,
combining the components in precise proportions, burning the prepared mix in a kiln,
grinding the burnt result, known as "clinker," a percentage of gypsum (to limit the
period of set of the cement).
Under high temperatures, a rotary kiln is a physically huge process unit used in cement
manufacturing where limestone is degraded into calcium oxide, which forms the base
of cement clinker particles.
Also, the Location of the control parameters and variables is discussed.
Industry of Cement: Rotary Kiln
4
Introduction:
the cement industry is directly tied to the economy of the construction, In 1995, the
European Union produced 172 million tonnes of cement, accounting for nearly 12% of
global output. (European Commission, 2001)
After mining, grinding, and homogenization of raw materials, the first phase in cement
production is the calcination of calcium carbonate, followed by high-temperature
burning of the resultant calcium oxide with silica, alumina, and ferrous oxide to
generate clinker. To make cement, the clinker is crushed or milled with gypsum and
other ingredients. (European Commission,2001)
It is worth noting that cement is one of the most essential building materials in the
world. It is mostly utilized in the production of concrete. Concrete is made up of inert
mineral aggregates like sand, gravel, broken stones, and cement. Cement consumption
and manufacturing are inextricably linked to the construction industry, and
consequently to overall economic activity. Cement is one of the most developed
products in the world, owing to its importance as a construction material and the
geographical availability of the key raw materials, namely limestone. The extensive
development is also attributed to the low cost and high density of cement. Because of
the comparatively high prices, ground transportation is reduced. Export commerce
(excluding plants grown across borders) is often restricted in comparison to global
output. (N. Martin, m. D. Levine, et al,1995)
Referred to Figure 1 process flow diagram of the cement industry is explained There
are four stages in the manufacture of Portland cement:
• crushing and grinding the raw materials
• blending the materials in the correct proportions
• burning the prepared mix in a kiln
• grinding the burned product, known as “clinker,”
• percent of gypsum (to control the time of set of the cement).
The three manufacturing techniques are known as the wet, dry, and semidry processes,
and are so named because the raw materials are ground wet and fed to the kiln as a
Industry of Cement: Rotary Kiln
5
slurry, ground dry and supplied as a dry powder, or ground dry and subsequently
moistened to form nodules that are fed to the kiln. (Thomas o. Mason 2023)
Figure 1: The cement-making process, from raw material
Chemical Reaction EngineeringCatalysts in Chemical Reactor Designs DimaJawhar
Chemical reaction engineering is a subset of chemical engineering, and it is often simply called reaction engineering. Its content can be roughly divided into reaction kinetics and reactor design and analysis.
Reaction kinetics is mainly concerned with the mechanism and the rate of chemical reactions.
The three classical generic chemical reactors are the batch reactor, the continuous stirred-tank reactor (CSTR), and the plug flow tubular reactor (PFR). Each of these reactor types has its own unique characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages.
Bed reactor is used to contact fluids with solids. It is one of the most widely used industrial reactors and may or may not be catalytic. The bed is usually a column with the actual dimensions influenced by temperature and pressure drop in addition to the reaction kinetics.
Catalytic reactions and reactors have widespread applications in producing chemicals in bulk, petroleum, petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, specialty chemicals, etc.
These rigorous design efforts, firmly based on sound mathematical principles, triggered the development of several profitable catalytic processes.
types of catalyst
Fixed bed reactors.
Trickle-bed reactors.
Moving bed reactors.
Rotating bed reactors.
Fluidized bed reactors.
Slurry reactors.
Using catalysts leads to faster, more energy-efficient chemical reactions. Catalysts also have a key property called selectivity, by which they can direct a reaction to increase the amount of desired product and reduce the amount of unwanted byproducts.
Aim of the experiment
“The aim of this experiment is to determine the amount of heat loss from hot water by
parallel flow current in the pipes of the heat exchanger.”
Double Pipe Heat Exchanger. 3
Chemical Engineering Department.
Stage III
Introduction to double pipe heat exchangers
A double pipe heat exchanger, also known as a hairpin heat exchanger, is a type of heat
exchanger used to transfer heat between two fluids. It consists of two concentric pipes,
one inside the other, forming a “U” or “hairpin” shape. One fluid flows through the inner
pipe, while the other flows through the annular space between the inner and outer pipes.
This design allows for efficient heat transfer between the two fluids, making it suitable for
various applications, such as cooling or heating processes in industrial systems.
Types of flows in double pipe heat exchangers
In a double pipe heat exchanger, there are two primary flow arrangements, each with its
variations, however, we’re are going to be focusing on two simple arrangements only, as
they would suffice to comprehend the basic ideas behind double pipe heat exchangers.
One flow arrangement is called “parallel flow” and the other is called “counter flow”.
The latter will be explained in our next experiment.
Parallel flow or uni-flow: in this type of flow, both the hot and cold fluids flow in the
same direction, entering one end of the inner pipe and exiting the other end. This
arrangement is simple but generally less efficient for heat transfer because the
temperature difference between the two fluids decreases along the length of the
exchanger.
Figure 1: simple parallel flow diagram.
By “Research Gate”
Double Pipe Heat Exchanger. 4
Chemical Engineering Department.
Stage III
However, when there’s a significant temperature difference between the two fluids at the
inlet, parallel flow heat exchangers can be more efficient for heat transfer. Both
arrangements have advantages and disadvantages and are used depending on the
system requirements.
Theoretical calculation for heat transfer in double pipe heat
exchangers
Heat Transfer: Heat transfer is the process of the exchange of thermal energy between
two objects or systems that are at different temperatures, and the heat energy always
flows from the high temperature object or system to the low ones because the entropy of
an isolated system can never decrease.
There are several ways to calculate the amount of heat added or lost by an object or a
system. However, in this experiment a relatively simple equation can be used to
determine the amount of heat lost from the hot water, which is equal to the amount of
heat added to the cold water.
When pressure is held constant throughout the process, the amount of heat transfer will
be equal to the change in enthalpy of the system and therefore can be calculated using
constant pressure enthalpy change equation.
Q=ΔH=mCpΔT
Where:
Q=ΔH is the amount of heat transferred to or from the system (J).
m: mass of the system (Kg)
Cp:
Bernoulli equation fluid mechanics lab experiments lab report:
Aim:
The main purpose of this experiment is to investigate Bernoulli’s law.
Theory:
Bernoulli’s principle states that the total mechanical energy of the moving fluid comprising the gravitational potential energy of elevation, the energy associated with the fluid pressure, and the kinetic energy of the fluid motion, remains constant.
The HM 150.07 experimental unit is used to demonstrate Bernoulli’s principle. includes a pipe section with a transparent Venturi nozzle and a movable Pitot tube for measuring the total pressure. The Pitot tube is located within the Venturi nozzle and is displaced axially. The position of the Pitot tube can be observed through the Venturi nozzle’s transparent front panel.
The Venturi nozzle is equipped with pressure measuring points to determine the static pressures. The pressures are displayed on the six-tube manometers. The total pressure is measured by the Pitot tube and displayed on another single-tube manometer. Bernoulli’s law is expressed as:
Where: •P= static pressure of the fluid at the cross-section • 𝜌= density of flowing fluid
•g= acceleration due to gravity •v= mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross-section
•h= elevation head of the center of the cross-section with respect to a datum.
Figure-1: Venturi meter: It is a device based on Bernoulli’s theorem and is used for measuring the flow rate of liquid flow through the pipes.
Bernoulli equation
4
Procedure:
Equipment: HM-150
Figure-1: 1 diagram, 2 tube manometers (static pressures), 3 water supply, 4 valve, 5 Venturi nozzle, 6 water outlet, 7 valve for water outlet, 8 Pitot tube, 9 single tube manometer (total pressure)
Specification:
1. familiarization with Bernoulli’s principle
2. Venturi nozzle with a transparent front panel and measuring points for measuring the static pressures
3. axially movable Pitot tube for determining the total pressure at various points within the Venturi nozzle
4. 6 tube manometers for displaying the static pressures
5. single tube manometer for displaying the total pressure
6. flow rate determined by HM 150 base module
7. water supply using HM 150 base module or via laboratory supply
sulfur content petroleum and gas lab report experement
Aim:
This test method covers the determination of total sulfur in petroleum and petroleum products
that are liquid at ambient conditions. These materials can include diesel fuel, jet fuel,
kerosene, other distillate oil, naphtha, residual oil, lubricating base oil, hydraulic oil, crude
oil, unleaded gasoline, gasoline ethanol blends, and similar petroleum products.
Introduction
This test method provides rapid and precise measurement of total sulfur in petroleum and
petroleum products with a minimum of sample preparation. A typical analysis time is 1 min
to 5 min.
In this experiment the model (RX-360SH) determines total sulfur in petroleum products, such as
gas oil, fuel oil, crude oil and naphtha, using energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF)
method, which is an accurate, non-destructive, economical and yet quick method prescribed
per sample.
The quality of petroleum products is determined by the amount of sulfur present. It is
necessary to know sulfur concentration for processing purposes. There are also regulations
promulgated in federal, state, and local agencies that restrict the amount of sulfur present in
some fuels.
This method provides the determining whether the sulfur content of petroleum or a petroleum
product meets specification or regulatory limits.
Figure-1: RX-360SH.
4
Procedure : Total sulfur analyzer for petroleum products by energy dispersive
X-ray fluorescence method :
1. RX-360SH
2. A prepared sample cup and it’s supplies
3. Sample volume: 3-5ml
4. Measuring range: 0-6.00wt%
Required equipment’s is shown in figure-2 as the numbers follow the tools :
1. two-way-open cylinder (1). 2. plastic-sheet’s (2). 3. Plastic ring. 4. Lid
5. two-way-open cylinder. 6. Removing the sample ring. 7. stand.
temperature measurement thermodynamics lab experement lab report
Aim:
Measuring the temperature by different methods and draw the calibration curve with the
thermometer
Introduction
Recording temperature is one of the basic tasks in process and manufacturing automation.
The WL 202 experimentation set-up covers the full range of temperature measurement
methods. As well as non-electrical measuring methods, such as gas- and liquid-filled
thermometers and bimetallic thermometers, all typical electronic measuring methods are
covered in the experiments. The electronically measured temperatures are displayed directly
on programmable digital displays. A temperature-proportionate output voltage signal
(0...10V) is accessible from lab jacks, enabling temperature characteristics to be recorded
with, for example, a plotter. A digital mustimeter with precision resistors is used to calibrate
the electrical measuring devices. Various heat sources or storage units (immersion heater,
vacuum flask and laboratory heater) permit relevant temperature ranges to be achieved for the
sensors being tested. A plastic casing houses the sensors, cables, temperature measuring
strips and immersion heater. The well-structured instructional material sets out the
fundamentals and provides a step-by-step guide through the experiments.
1. power-regulated socket.
2. vacuum flask.
3. immersion heater.
4. laboratory heater for water and sand.
Measuring temperature experiment by WL-202
4
5. multimeter.
6. temperature sensors.
7. temperature measuring strips.
8. mercury thermometer.
9. bimetal thermometer.
10. gas pressure thermometer.
11. psychrometer to determine air humidity.
12. digital display of temperature sensors.
1. Immersion
lifting force fluid mechanics lab report Aim of this Experiment:
Finding lifting force for a solid object when thrown into fluid (H2O).
Introduction
The lift force, lifting force or simply lift is a mechanical force generated by solid objects as they move through a fluid. In general, the lift is an upward-acting force on an aircraft wing or airfoil. There are several ways to explain how an airfoil generates lift.
Lift is generated when an object turns a fluid away from its direction of flow. When the object and fluid move relative to each other, the object turns the fluid flow in a direction perpendicular to that flow, and the force required to do this creates an equal and opposite force that is lift. The object may be moving through a stationary fluid, or the fluid may be flowing past a stationary object— these two are effectively identical as, in principle, it is only the frame of reference of the viewer which differs.
In the case of an aircraft wing, pressure regions turn the passing flow of air downward towards the ground. These pressure regions exert an equal and opposite force on the wing, called lift, that supports the aircraft in the air.
a floating object from sinking. When the object is immersed in water (or any other liquid), its weight pulls it downwards. Buoyancy opposes that weight and has a magnitude directly proportional to the volume of fluid that would otherwise occupy the space taken by the object – in other words, to the volume of the displaced liquid.
The theory of lifting force can be expressed:
FA=P*g*Vdisplaced
FGwater=FG-FA
Where:
(fa=lifting force ,p=density of fluid, V=volume displacement, & g=gravity)
Equipment and tools :
1. Stand
2. Beaker 350ml.
3. Beaker 100ml.
4. Over flow beaker
5. Sample experiment: ( brass (CU) , ployoxymethelene, aluminum )
6. Spring balance.
7. Graduated cylinder.
Figure-1 : tools and equipments for lifting force experement.
Procedure :
1. Weight each sample experiment ( brass (CU) , polyoxymethylene, aluminum ) by the spring balance, The mass is hung on the end of a spring and the deflection of the spring due to the downwards gravitational force on the mass is measured against a scale. Fg measuring unite N before putting it into water:
• Take an iron stand and suspend a spring balance to it.
• Study the spring balance, its scale and its least count.
• Record your observations.
2. Find the weight of the samples in air:
• Take the samples ( brass (CU) , polyoxymethylene, aluminum ), tie thread to it and suspend on the hook of the spring balance.
• Record the weight of the samples in air. Let this weight be FGAir
3. Find the weight of the samples immersed in tap water and record the apparent loss in (mL) :
Take an overflow can, fill it with water such that its water level touches the spout of the overflow can.
Keep an overflow can under the spring balance such that the sample gets fully immersed in the water of the overflow can.
Keep a beaker whose volume (mL) is recorded, at the mouth of
thermodynamics dew point lab report Generally, hygrometers, or cooled mirrors, have been the conventional air measurement tools used for precise dew point measurement. The device is considered to be a humidity transfer standard. The process entails cooling a mirror until water vapor begins to condense on the surface. The temperature of the mirror is measured. This projects the dew point of the air. This process is generally used in laboratory practices.
A dew-point hygrometer was invented in 1751. For this instrument, cold water was added to water in a vessel until dew formed on the vessel, and the temperature of the vessel, the dew point, provided a direct index of humidity.
In this experiment acetone is used even though the sample is not necessary to be acetone nor the amount of volume matters that becomes vapor so that the temperature (dew point) is measured until the metal mirror starts to condense.
.
Relative Humidity Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio between saturated humidity over absolute humidity at a given temperature. Relative humidity depends on temperature and the pressure of the system of interest. It requires less water vapor to attain high relative humidity at low temperatures; more water vapor is required to attain high relative humidity in warm or hot air. Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage ; a higher percentage means that the air water mixture is more humid ; a lower percentage means that the air-water mixture is less humid.
Relative Humidity (%RH) =𝑭𝑺𝐅𝐀∗%𝟏𝟎𝟎
Absolute humidity is the total mass of water vapor present in a given volume of air. It does not take temperature into consideration. Absolute humidity in the atmosphere ranges from near zero to roughly 30 grams per cubic meter when the air is saturated at 30 °C (86 °F).
Finding Dew point by hygrometer
4
Absolute humidity is the mass of the water vapor divided by the volume of the air and water vapor The absolute humidity changes as air temperature or pressure changes.
The saturation humidity (Hs or FA) is the maximum quantity of water vapor that air can contain at a given temperature, without phase separation. The relative humidity (φ or RH) is the ratio (as percentage) of the partial pressure of water vapor in air, to the vapor pressure of liquid water at the same temperature.
phase change occurs at dew point temperature when the temperature of a gas is the temperature at which the water vapor or low-boiling hydrocarbon derivatives contained in the gas is transformed into the liquid state.
The boiling point of a liquid varies according to the applied pressure; the normal boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the standard sea-level atmospheric pressure (760 mm [29.92 inches] of mercury). At sea level, water boils at 100° C (212° F).
Finding Dew point by hygrometer
5
Physical bases of the Measurement Procedure:
At room temperature ether is close to its boiling point. Rapid evaporation is already taking place
Calibrating the bourdon gauge. which is used to measure gauge Pressure. The deadweight piston gauge (Bell and Howell) is used is to measure pressure in terms of fundamental units - force and area. A piston is inserted into a close fitting cylinder. Weights are placed on one end of the piston and are supported by fluid pressure applied to the other end. For absolute pressure measurements the assembly is placed inside an evacuated bell jar. Pressure measurements take into account a number of parameters affecting the instrument and its environment.
The pressure is applied via weights which are placed on a weight support. The latter has a piston which acts on hydraulic oil in a pipe system, so that a manometer which is also connected to the system should indicate certain pressures. The device contains a Bourdon spring manometer with a transparent dial. The display mechanism and the various adjustment opportunities are therefore clearly identifiable. Hydraulic oil is used to transfer pressure. Instructions :
1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge for pressure measurement
2. transparent dial face with a view of the spring mechanism
3. accurately fitting piston and cylinder of the piston manometer without seals
4. hydraulic oil for transfer of the force hydraulic pump with storage tank and bleed mechanism The device for calibrating pressure gauges essentially consists of two units:
1. The pressure gauge unit This is where the manometer to be calibrated is screwed in
2. The load unit The load unit consists of several weights and a cylinder with a piston. An increase in the load results in an increase in pressure. The load unit is connected to the pressure
gauge unit via an oil-filled line, enabling the manometer to display the increase in pressure.
The following sectional drawing shows how the load unit and pressure gauge unit are connected:
Figure-4: Hydraulic connections.
both units are connected by means of a pipeline. When the support is loaded with weights, the oil pressure in the system increases. The seal between the piston and the cylinder is metallic, with no other sealing elements. The fit has been very carefully designed to ensure that the piston operates almost entirely without friction, and with minimal oil leakage.
The weights are designed in such a way that pressure increments of 0,5bar are possible. Place the small weight on the weight support first. A guide pin is provided for this purpose. The other weights would lie askew on the plunger and would corrupt the measurements due to different levels of friction.
flash point petroleum and gas lab experiment report, The flash point is the lowest temperature at which there will be enough flammable vapor to induce ignition when an ignition source is applied.Flash points are determined experimentally by heating the liquid in a container (cup) and then introducing a small flame just above the liquid surface. The temperature at which there is a flash/ignition is recorded as the flash point. The closed-cup test PMA 5 contains any vapors
produced and essentially simulates the situation
in which a potential source of ignition is
accidentally introduced into a container. In this
test a test specimen is introduced into a cup and
a close-fitting lid is fitted to the top of the cup.
The cup and test specimen is heated.
Subsequently, apertures are opened in the lid to
allow air into the cup and the ignition source to
be dipped into the vapors to test for a flash.
The closed cup is mostly used in product specifications and regulations due to
its better precision. The following table shows the comparative flash points
measured in open and closed cup apparatus for some common pure liquids.
boyle's law thermodynamics lab Boyle’s law, also called Mariotte’s law, a relation concerning the compression and expansion of a gas at constant temperature. This empirical relation, formulated by the physicist Robert Boyle in 1662, states that the pressure (p) of a given quantity of gas varies inversely with its volume (v) at constant temperature; i.e., in equation form, pv = k, a constant. The relationship was also discovered by the French physicist Edme Mariotte (1676). ake a large piston or sealed syringe and stand it on end, then place an increasing number of objects on top. As the pressure grows, the volume of the air inside will decrease—these quantities are inversely proportional. However, the standard international unit for pressure is the Pascal. The English scientist Robert Boyle performed a series of experiments involving pressure and, in 1662, arrived at a general law—that the volume of a gas varies inversely with pressure.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
When the automobile is sold to the customer, stock will be reduced automatically. When a new purchase is made, stock will be increased automatically. While selecting automobiles for sale, the proposed software will automatically check for total number of available stock of that particular item, if the total stock of that particular item is less than 5, software will notify the user to purchase the particular item.
Also when the user tries to sale items which are not in stock, the system will prompt the user that the stock is not enough. Customers of this system can search for a automobile; can purchase a automobile easily by selecting fast. On the other hand the stock of automobiles can be maintained perfectly by the automobile shop manager overcoming the drawbacks of existing system.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Courier management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
It is now-a-days very important for the people to send or receive articles like imported furniture, electronic items, gifts, business goods and the like. People depend vastly on different transport systems which mostly use the manual way of receiving and delivering the articles. There is no way to track the articles till they are received and there is no way to let the customer know what happened in transit, once he booked some articles. In such a situation, we need a system which completely computerizes the cargo activities including time to time tracking of the articles sent. This need is fulfilled by Courier Management System software which is online software for the cargo management people that enables them to receive the goods from a source and send them to a required destination and track their status from time to time.
1. Environmental Heat Transfer
1
Koya University Faculty of Engineering
Chemical Engineering Department
Third stage
Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer in Buildings
2023-2024
supervisor:
Mr. Ahmed Abdulsalam Maroof
Prepared by:
Dima Jawhar
Ara Fakher
Report date: 30/Nov./2023 submission date: Dec./7/2023
2. Environmental Heat Transfer
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Table of Contents
Abstract: .................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction:.............................................................................................................................. 4
Methodology: ............................................................................................................................ 6
Types of heat transfer in buildings:....................................................................................... 6
Conduction: ....................................................................................................................... 6
Convection: ....................................................................................................................... 6
Radiation: .......................................................................................................................... 6
Heat transfer in buildings ...................................................................................................... 7
Heat transfer in walls......................................................................................................... 7
Heat transfer in building windows: ................................................................................... 7
Heat transfer through buildings rooms and roofs:............................................................. 9
Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 11
References:.............................................................................................................................. 12
3. Environmental Heat Transfer
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Abstract:
Introduction: The several ways that thermal energy is transferred from one place to
another are referred to as the principle of heat transfer.
This process is known as radiation heat transfer.
The transfer of energy by thermal radiation, or electromagnetic waves, is known as
radiant heat transfer.
A convection current is created when heated air rises and is replaced by colder air,
transferring heat from the inner pane to the outside pane(s).
Heat is carried via the window frame in triple-glazing units; convection is minor in
double-glazing units up to 20 mm, especially when argon gas is used, which is denser
than air.
Heat transfer through buildings rooms and roofs: Even while convection often involves
more variables than conduction, we are nevertheless able to characterize it and do some
simple, accurate calculations to determine its effects.
Figure 7 illustrates each of the three heat transmission techniques in this portion of the
attic.
This natural convection heating system, when correctly built, may be quite effective in
heating a home evenly.
4. Environmental Heat Transfer
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Introduction:
The several ways that thermal energy is transferred from one place to another are
referred to as the principle of heat transfer. There are three main
ways that heat travels through building assemblies: radiation, convection, and conduct
ion. One or more of these mechanisms may be involved in a specific thermal energy
transfer.
Phase transitions also release or absorb heat through three processes: conduction, radi
ation, and convection. Examples of this include heat transfer from walls to rooms, fro
m fluids to each other, between pipes, and from outside heat to dwellings.
The types of heat transport are described in Figure 1. a (concept group LLC, 2023)
Figure 1: types of transferring heat. (energy saver, 2023)
Temperature and heat are not the same thing. Temperature is a measurement of the
intensity of kinetic energy, which is what heat is. Consider two water containers, one
holding 10 gallons and the other one holding 1 gallon, to demonstrate this. Both
containers hold 50°F water. The bigger container retains ten times more heat than the
smaller one, even if they are of the same temperature. Because it has a greater capacity,
the larger container can hold more heat. (Clayton DeKorne, 2023)
Building heat transfer calculations are performed for different applications such as:
(Kusuda T., 1977)
• heat transmission via the outer envelope, the basement walls, the slab-on-grade
floor (to a semi-infinite zone),
• transmission, absorption, and reflection of short wavelengths (or solar heat) for
openings.
• thermal storage in the external masses of structures.
5. Environmental Heat Transfer
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• air leakage via outside envelopes as well as the interior partition walls, ceilings,
and floors.
Interior environmental analyses-:
• radiant heat transfer between heat sinks or sources and interior surfaces,
• the transfer of heat convectively between interior surfaces and room air
• convectional motion within and between rooms, or room air convection
• the interior heat sources, such as heaters, coolers, and occupants, convective and
radiative heat transfer
• internal masses' thermal storage.
Material or building element-related problems:
• convection inside porous insulation,
• the cold-bridge effect,
• moisture condensation brought on by the simultaneous movement of heat,
moisture, and air.
Figure 2: fundamentals of heat transfer in buildings. (Let's Talk Science, 2021)
6. Environmental Heat Transfer
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Methodology:
Types of heat transfer in buildings:
Conduction:
The movement of heat from one area of the body at a higher temperature to another
area at a lower temperature is known as conduction. Energy is transferred from
molecules with higher energy levels to those with lower energy levels during the
conduction process, which occurs at the molecular level. This is clearly seen in gases,
where we find that molecules in the higher temperature areas have an average kinetic
energy that is larger than those in the lower temperature regions. (Rohsenow, W.M.,
Hartnett, et al 1998)
Convection:
Heat is transferred between two bodies by convective heat transfer, which is caused by
moving gas or fluid currents. Free convection is the process by which warm air or water
rises and is replaced by a cooler parcel of air or water, moving away from the heated
body. Forced convection effectively eliminates heat from the body by forcing air or
water (as in wind or wind-generated water currents) to flow across the surface of the
body. Because convection keeps the temperature differential between the body and the
surrounding air or water steep, it is an extremely effective means of transferring heat.
(Inna Sokolova 2019)
Radiation:
Heat waves are released into the environment, where they might be absorbed, reflected,
or transmitted via a cooler body. This process is known as radiation heat transfer. Earth
is heated by electromagnetic radiation from the Sun. Heat waves are released by hot
bodies.
Conduction, convection, or a mix of the two are used in the majority of upstream
applications for oil and gas processing facilities. Temperatures in fluid-fluid exchangers
are too low for radiation to play a major role. A flare's heat output must be calculated
with consideration for radiation. (Maurice Stewart, 2021)
The transfer of energy by thermal radiation, or electromagnetic waves, is known as
radiant heat transfer. It happens in any transparent media, including gas, liquid, and
7. Environmental Heat Transfer
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solid states. All objects generate thermal radiation at temperatures higher than absolute
zero because matter's atoms and molecules move randomly. Rohsenow, W.M.,
Hartnett, et al 1998)
Heat transfer in buildings
Heat transfer in walls
The effect of the convective heat that the surface at each side of the element is
exchanging with the surrounding air and the radiant heat exchanges with other surfaces
that the surface is exposed to is known as conduction heat transfer through an opaque
building fabric element, such as an external wall as shown in Fig. 3. The absorbance of
solar radiation, including both direct and diffuse radiation, is included in the radiant
heat exchange at the outside side of an external wall or roof. (engineers daily, 2017)
Figure 3: Heat transfer at an external wall. (engineers daily, 2017)
Heat transfer in building windows:
Radiation from the glass of a typical window is often the source of energy loss from it.
In a double-glazed unit, heat is absorbed by the inner pane and transferred to the exterior
by conduction and convection (see Figure 4 for heat exchanges between the outer pane
and its colder surroundings). Units of measurement for a glazing unit's thermal
8. Environmental Heat Transfer
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transmittance are Watts per square meter per degree of temperature difference
(W/m2C), sometimes referred to as the U-value.
Within the glazing cavity, convection loses a tiny quantity of heat. There are situations
where the inner glass warms the air inside the cavity, especially in larger glazing
cavities. A convection current is created when heated air rises and is replaced by colder
air, transferring heat from the inner pane to the outside pane(s). Heat is carried via the
window frame in triple-glazing units; convection is minor in double-glazing units up to
20 mm, especially when argon gas is used, which is denser than air. The substance of
the frame determines the rate of conduction (U-value); generally speaking, wood
frames outperform metal frames in this regard. (Greenspec, 2023)
Figure 4: Windows: Heat loss & Heat gain. (Greenspec, 2023)
A double-glazed window's cutaway schematic is seen in Figure 5. This can be a sealed
double-glazing unit, often with a gap of about 16 mm between the panes, or it can be a
single-glazed window with an additional secondary pane installed separately. But the
fundamental ideas remain the same. (OpenLearn 2020)
9. Environmental Heat Transfer
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Figure 5: heat transfer double glazing in windows. (OpenLearn 2020)
Heat transfer through buildings rooms and roofs:
Even while convection often involves more variables than conduction, we are
nevertheless able to characterize it and do some simple, accurate calculations to
determine its effects. In constructing rooms, natural convection is caused by buoyant
forces: hot air rises because temperature causes density to decrease. This is how the
residence in Figure 6 is kept warm. (lumen learning 2023)
Figure 7 illustrates each of the three heat transmission techniques in this portion of the
attic. Solar radiation is absorbed by roofing materials. Warm attic air and exposed
framing are caused by the materials' reradiation of heat as they heat up. Conduction of
heat through the ceiling is restricted by insulation; the more the insulation, the greater
the barrier to conductive heat flow. Air is moved by convection through soffit and ridge
vents and by internal air pressure through ceiling apertures to help cool the attic. (Tim
Healey 2023)
10. Environmental Heat Transfer
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Figure 6: The so-called gravity furnace heats the air, which then rises and expands to
create a convective loop that distributes energy throughout the space. The air constricts
as it cools near ceilings and outside walls, finally becoming denser than room air and
dropping to the ground. This natural convection heating system, when correctly built,
may be quite effective in heating a home evenly. (uni central Florida 2023)
Figure 7: heat transfer through roofs. (Tim Healey 2023)
11. Environmental Heat Transfer
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Conclusion
Concluding everything together about heat transfer in building is that thermal energy
transfer from one place to another and there are 3 main types : conduction, convection,
radiation. Its calculation for application in uses of buildings heat transfer along with
Interior environmental analyses and Material or building element-related problems
In methodology it talks about the three main type of heat transfer in details its
requirements along others. Then the mention of our topic in building Heat transfer in
walls window rooms and roofs.
12. Environmental Heat Transfer
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References:
1. Energy saver (2023), the principle and types of heat transfer. [online] available
at: https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/principles-heating-and-
cooling#:~:text=Heat%20is%20transferred%20to%20and,conduction%2C%2
0radiation%2C%20and%20convection. [Accessed: Nov./30/2023]
2. Concept Group LLC (2023), What are the different types of heat transfer?
[online] available at: https://conceptgroupllc.com/glossary/what-is-heat-
transfer/#:~:text=Heat%20transfer%20refers%20to%20various,or%20more%2
0of%20these%20processes. [Accessed: Nov./30/2023]
3. Rohsenow, W.M., Hartnett, J.P. and Cho, Y.I., 1998. Handbook of heat transfer
(Vol. 3). New York: McGraw-Hill. Available at:
https://www.academia.edu/download/53726135/handbook_of_HeatTransfer.p
df [Accessed: Nov./30/2023]
4. Inna Sokolova, (2019)Convective heat flow from suddenly heated surfaces
embedded in porous media. [online] Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-
sciences/convectiveheattransfer#:~:text=Convection,parcel%20of%20air%20o
r%20water. [Accessed: Nov./30/2023]
5. Maurice Stewart, (2021), radiation heat transfer. [online] Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780128037225/surface-production-
operations [Accessed: Nov./30/2023]
6. Clayton DeKorne (2023), Heat Transfer Through Buildings. [online] Available
at: https://www.jlconline.com/training-the-trades/heat-transfer-through-
buildings_o#:~:text=Heat%20moves%20through%20building%20assemblies,in%20th
e%20transfer%20of%20heat. [Accessed: Nov./30/2023]
7. Kusuda, T., 1977. Fundamentals of building heat transfer. JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH of the National Bureau of Standards, 82(2), p.1. Available at:
https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/jres/82/jresv82n2p97_a1b.pdf [Accessed:
Nov./30/2023]
8. Let's Talk Science (2021), Introduction to Heat Transfer. [online images] .
Available at:
13. Environmental Heat Transfer
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https://letstalkscience.ca/educationalresources/backgrounders/introduction-heat-
transfer [Accessed: Nov./30/2023]
9. engineers daily, (2017), Heat Transfer in Building Elements, article:
26Oct2017. [online] Available at: https://www.engineersdaily.com/2017/10/heat-
transfer-in-building-elements.html [Accessed: Nov./30/2023]
10. Greenspec (2023), Windows: Heat loss & Heat gain. [online] Available at:
https://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/windows/ [Accessed:
Nov./30/2023]
11. OpenLearn (2020), Energy in buildings. [online] Available at:
https://www.open.edu/openlearn/nature-environment/energy-buildings/content-
section-2.2.1 [Accessed: Nov./30/2023]
12. Uni central Florida (2023), Mechanisms of Heat Transfer. [online] available at:
https://pressbooks.online.ucf.edu/osuniversityphysics2/chapter/mechanisms-
of-heat-transfer/ [ accessed: Dec./3/2023]
13. Tim Healey (2023), heat transfer through roofs. [online] available at:
https://www.jlconline.com/author/tim-healey [ accessed: Dec./3/2023]