Heart sounds
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The document discusses heart sounds, including the four main types: S1, S2, S3, and S4. S1 and S2 are normally heard with each heartbeat while S3 and S4 may sometimes be heard. S1 occurs with the closure of the atrioventricular valves at the beginning of systole. S2 occurs with the closure of the semilunar valves at the end of systole. S3 occurs during early ventricular filling and S4 occurs during atrial contraction just before S1 of the next cycle. The sounds are associated with different parts of the cardiac cycle and changes in sounds can provide information about cardiac function and health issues.
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Heart sounds
The document discusses heart sounds and murmurs. It describes the normal S1 and S2 heart sounds which correspond to valve closures. The S3 and S4 sounds indicate pathology, with S3 associated with left ventricular failure and S4 with stiff ventricles. Murmurs are abnormal sounds caused by turbulent blood flow through stenotic or leaky valves. Systolic murmurs occur between S1 and S2 while diastolic murmurs occur between S2 and S1. The timing, location and quality of murmurs provide clues to the type of underlying valve abnormality.
Cardiac cycle made easy
The cardiac cycle describes the sequence of events that occur with each heartbeat. It involves mechanical, electrical, and pressure changes in the heart. The cycle begins with ventricular relaxation and atrial filling in diastole. Upon electrical stimulation, the ventricles contract in systole to pump blood out of the heart. This is accompanied by characteristic pressure and volume changes in the chambers as well as events on an electrocardiogram like the P, QRS, and T waves. The cycle repeats with each heartbeat to sustain blood circulation.
Heart sounds and murmurs
This document discusses heart sounds and murmurs. It explains that heart sounds are caused by the closing of the atrioventricular and semilunar valves, producing the first and second heart sounds. The location of these sounds depends on which valves are closing. Murmurs can be caused by various valvular lesions that interfere with normal blood flow, such as stenosis or regurgitation of the aortic, mitral, or pulmonary valves. The characteristics of murmurs provide clues to the underlying heart condition.
Heart sounds
The document discusses heart sounds, describing the four main sounds - S1, S2, S3, and S4. S1 occurs with the closing of the atrioventricular valves, coinciding with the R wave of an ECG. S2 occurs with the closing of the semilunar valves, coinciding with the T wave. S3 occurs during rapid ventricular filling between the T and P waves. S4 occurs during atrial systole between the P wave and Q wave. Heart sounds provide diagnostic value for assessing cardiac diseases and can be studied using a stethoscope, microphone, or phonocardiogram.
Arterial and venous pulse
The arterial pulse is caused by the transmission of pressure waves along the arteries during ventricular systole. The pulse can be felt over arteries and provides information about heart rate, rhythm, and volume. The jugular venous pulse reflects right atrial pressure and is assessed by observing waves corresponding to atrial contraction and filling. Together, examining the arterial and jugular pulses provides clinical information about cardiovascular function and hemodynamics.
heart auscultation
The document discusses auscultation of the cardiovascular system. It describes the normal heart sounds S1 and S2 and factors that can influence their intensity. Extra heart sounds S3 and S4 that indicate pathology are described. Points for auscultating murmurs are provided, including describing timing, location, radiation, duration, intensity, pitch and quality. Systolic and diastolic murmurs and their differentials are briefly discussed.
Cardiac cycle
This document summarizes the cardiac cycle and its seven phases: 1) atrial systole, 2) isovolumetric ventricular contraction, 3) rapid ventricular ejection, 4) reduced ventricular ejection, 5) isovolumetric ventricular relaxation, 6) rapid ventricular filling, and 7) reduced ventricular filling. It describes the relationship between pressures, volumes, and heart sounds in the left atrium and ventricle, aorta, and jugular vein throughout each phase of the cycle. It also discusses how arrhythmias like tachycardia and atrial fibrillation can impact the cardiac cycle by reducing stroke volume and cardiac output.
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Heart sounds
The document discusses heart sounds and murmurs. It describes the normal S1 and S2 heart sounds which correspond to valve closures. The S3 and S4 sounds indicate pathology, with S3 associated with left ventricular failure and S4 with stiff ventricles. Murmurs are abnormal sounds caused by turbulent blood flow through stenotic or leaky valves. Systolic murmurs occur between S1 and S2 while diastolic murmurs occur between S2 and S1. The timing, location and quality of murmurs provide clues to the type of underlying valve abnormality.
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The cardiac cycle describes the sequence of events that occur with each heartbeat. It involves mechanical, electrical, and pressure changes in the heart. The cycle begins with ventricular relaxation and atrial filling in diastole. Upon electrical stimulation, the ventricles contract in systole to pump blood out of the heart. This is accompanied by characteristic pressure and volume changes in the chambers as well as events on an electrocardiogram like the P, QRS, and T waves. The cycle repeats with each heartbeat to sustain blood circulation.
Heart sounds and murmurs
This document discusses heart sounds and murmurs. It explains that heart sounds are caused by the closing of the atrioventricular and semilunar valves, producing the first and second heart sounds. The location of these sounds depends on which valves are closing. Murmurs can be caused by various valvular lesions that interfere with normal blood flow, such as stenosis or regurgitation of the aortic, mitral, or pulmonary valves. The characteristics of murmurs provide clues to the underlying heart condition.
Heart sounds
The document discusses heart sounds, describing the four main sounds - S1, S2, S3, and S4. S1 occurs with the closing of the atrioventricular valves, coinciding with the R wave of an ECG. S2 occurs with the closing of the semilunar valves, coinciding with the T wave. S3 occurs during rapid ventricular filling between the T and P waves. S4 occurs during atrial systole between the P wave and Q wave. Heart sounds provide diagnostic value for assessing cardiac diseases and can be studied using a stethoscope, microphone, or phonocardiogram.
Arterial and venous pulse
The arterial pulse is caused by the transmission of pressure waves along the arteries during ventricular systole. The pulse can be felt over arteries and provides information about heart rate, rhythm, and volume. The jugular venous pulse reflects right atrial pressure and is assessed by observing waves corresponding to atrial contraction and filling. Together, examining the arterial and jugular pulses provides clinical information about cardiovascular function and hemodynamics.
heart auscultation
The document discusses auscultation of the cardiovascular system. It describes the normal heart sounds S1 and S2 and factors that can influence their intensity. Extra heart sounds S3 and S4 that indicate pathology are described. Points for auscultating murmurs are provided, including describing timing, location, radiation, duration, intensity, pitch and quality. Systolic and diastolic murmurs and their differentials are briefly discussed.
Cardiac cycle
This document summarizes the cardiac cycle and its seven phases: 1) atrial systole, 2) isovolumetric ventricular contraction, 3) rapid ventricular ejection, 4) reduced ventricular ejection, 5) isovolumetric ventricular relaxation, 6) rapid ventricular filling, and 7) reduced ventricular filling. It describes the relationship between pressures, volumes, and heart sounds in the left atrium and ventricle, aorta, and jugular vein throughout each phase of the cycle. It also discusses how arrhythmias like tachycardia and atrial fibrillation can impact the cardiac cycle by reducing stroke volume and cardiac output.
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The cardiac cycle describes the sequence of events in one heartbeat. It begins with atrial systole which pushes additional blood into the ventricles. This is followed by ventricular systole where the ventricles contract to pump blood out. Isovolumic contraction occurs as ventricular pressure rises, closing the AV valves before ejection. Ejection then proceeds rapidly initially and more slowly later. Isovolumic relaxation happens as ventricular pressure falls, opening the AV valves before rapid ventricular filling from the atria. The cycle then repeats with atrial systole.
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The document discusses the cardiac cycle, which refers to the sequence of changes in pressure, volume, and flow that occur in the heart chambers between each heartbeat. It has a duration of 0.8 seconds. The cardiac cycle consists of systole and diastole. Systole includes the isovolumetric contraction phase lasting 0.05 seconds and the ejection period lasting 0.22 seconds. Diastole includes the protodiastole phase lasting 0.04 seconds, isovolumetric relaxation phase lasting 0.08 seconds, rapid filling phase lasting 0.11 seconds, and slow filling phase lasting 0.19 seconds. The document also discusses the correlation between the cardiac cycle and jugular venous pressure, ECG changes,
The arterial pulse
The document discusses the arterial pulse, including:
1. The pulse is a wave felt by fingers produced by cardiac systole that travels through arteries faster than blood flow. Different arteries have different time lags from cardiac systole.
2. The pulse provides important information about heart function, circulation, and arterial health. It can help detect arrhythmias and diagnose conditions like aortic regurgitation and heart failure.
3. The pulse should be examined in multiple locations and compared between sides. Features like rate, rhythm, volume, and characteristics provide clues to cardiovascular conditions. Certain pulse types indicate specific problems like aortic stenosis or mitral regurgitation.
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The cardiac cycle consists of systole and diastole. During systole, the heart contracts and pumps blood, while during diastole the heart relaxes and fills with blood. The cycle takes approximately 0.8 seconds and is initiated by the sinoatrial node firing an electrical impulse. Key events in the cycle include atrial systole, isovolumic contraction, rapid ejection, slow ejection, isovolumic relaxation, and rapid and slow ventricular filling. Diseases associated with abnormalities in the cardiac cycle include angina, congestive heart failure, myocardial infarction, and valve disorders like mitral stenosis.
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Physiology (heart sounds)
This document describes the four main heart sounds and how to auscultate them using a stethoscope. It explains that the first heart sound corresponds to closure of the atrioventricular valves and the R wave of an ECG. The second heart sound corresponds to closure of the semilunar valves and the T wave of an ECG. The third heart sound occurs during rapid ventricular filling between the T and P waves. The fourth heart sound corresponds to atrial contraction between the P and Q waves. It identifies the best areas over the heart to auscultate each sound using a stethoscope.
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This document summarizes the cardiac cycle and its phases. It begins with an introduction to the heart as a dual pump and defines the cardiac cycle. It then describes the normal duration of the cardiac cycle and its various phases, including atrial systole, atrial diastole, ventricular systole, and ventricular diastole. It discusses the pressure and volume changes that occur in the atria, ventricles, aorta and pulmonary artery during each phase of the cardiac cycle. It also summarizes the heart sounds and murmurs that can occur.
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This document discusses cardiac output and its measurement. It defines cardiac output as the amount of blood ejected by each ventricle per minute, which is calculated as stroke volume multiplied by heart rate. It describes several methods to measure cardiac output, including the indicator dye dilution method, thermodilution, and measurement of inhaled inert gases. It discusses factors that can cause cardiac output to vary, such as age, sex, environmental temperature, exercise, and various pathological conditions.
Arterial blood pressure
Normal arterial blood pressure ranges from 90-140/60-90 mmHg. Systolic pressure is the maximum pressure when blood is ejected from the heart, while diastolic is the minimum pressure when the heart is resting between beats. Mean arterial pressure, which averages 93 mmHg, is the main driving force for blood flow. Blood pressure is regulated through short term mechanisms like baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes which control heart rate and vascular tone, and long term factors like blood volume and vessel elasticity. Strict control of blood pressure is important to ensure adequate blood flow to vital organs.
Heart blocks
Heart block occurs when the electrical signals that tell the heart to contract are partially or totally blocked between the atria and ventricles, causing the heart to beat too slowly. There are three main types of heart block - first degree, second degree, and third degree (complete heart block). The type of heart block depends on how much the electrical signals are blocked. More advanced heart blocks require treatment such as pacemakers while milder forms often do not require treatment.
SINOATRIAL NODE
The sinoatrial node, located in the wall of the right atrium, is the heart's natural pacemaker. It generates electrical impulses that pass through the heart and cause it to contract. The sinoatrial node initiates action potentials that travel through the conduction system to the atrioventricular node and then to the ventricles. As the primary pacemaker, the sinoatrial node controls the heart rate by regulating the firing of action potentials. Dysfunction or ischemia of the sinoatrial node can lead to irregular heart rhythms.
The pericardium
The pericardium is a fibroserous sac that surrounds the heart and roots of the great vessels. It has two layers - an outer fibrous layer and inner serous layer. The serous layer further divides into the parietal layer lining the fibrous sac and visceral layer adhered to the heart. Between these layers is the pericardial cavity containing fluid. The pericardium functions to support and protect the heart while allowing movement. Conditions like pericarditis or excess fluid accumulation can lead to cardiac tamponade.
Heart Sounds.Cardiovascular system by Dr Farhan KGMC peshawar
Heart sounds are produced by the closing of heart valves. The first heart sound (lub) is caused by closure of the atrioventricular valves starting systole, and the second sound (dub) is caused by closure of the semilunar valves ending systole. Four heart sounds are clinically important - S1 and S2 are normal systolic sounds, while S3 and S4 may indicate pathology when heard in adults. Heart sounds are auscultated and can be recorded as phonocardiograms to analyze the timing and intensity of the sounds.
HEART SOUND.pdf
The document discusses heart sounds, including their causes, types, and characteristics. It provides the following key points:
- Heart sounds are produced by the vibration of heart valves and adjacent structures during the cardiac cycle. The sounds are transmitted through the chest and are audible.
- The two main types of heart sounds are the first heart sound (S1) and second heart sound (S2). S1 occurs with the closure of the atrioventricular valves at the start of ventricular systole. S2 occurs with the closure of the semilunar valves at the start of ventricular diastole.
- S1 is dull, low-pitched, and prolonged, while S2 is short
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The document discusses the cardiac cycle, which refers to the sequence of changes in pressure, volume, and flow that occur in the heart chambers between each heartbeat. It has a duration of 0.8 seconds. The cardiac cycle consists of systole and diastole. Systole includes the isovolumetric contraction phase lasting 0.05 seconds and the ejection period lasting 0.22 seconds. Diastole includes the protodiastole phase lasting 0.04 seconds, isovolumetric relaxation phase lasting 0.08 seconds, rapid filling phase lasting 0.11 seconds, and slow filling phase lasting 0.19 seconds. The document also discusses the correlation between the cardiac cycle and jugular venous pressure, ECG changes,
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The document discusses the arterial pulse, including:
1. The pulse is a wave felt by fingers produced by cardiac systole that travels through arteries faster than blood flow. Different arteries have different time lags from cardiac systole.
2. The pulse provides important information about heart function, circulation, and arterial health. It can help detect arrhythmias and diagnose conditions like aortic regurgitation and heart failure.
3. The pulse should be examined in multiple locations and compared between sides. Features like rate, rhythm, volume, and characteristics provide clues to cardiovascular conditions. Certain pulse types indicate specific problems like aortic stenosis or mitral regurgitation.
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Easy way to learn Blood supply of the heart and Blood supply of the hear. simple way to learn by trick and easy form.
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The cardiac cycle consists of systole and diastole. During systole, the heart contracts and pumps blood, while during diastole the heart relaxes and fills with blood. The cycle takes approximately 0.8 seconds and is initiated by the sinoatrial node firing an electrical impulse. Key events in the cycle include atrial systole, isovolumic contraction, rapid ejection, slow ejection, isovolumic relaxation, and rapid and slow ventricular filling. Diseases associated with abnormalities in the cardiac cycle include angina, congestive heart failure, myocardial infarction, and valve disorders like mitral stenosis.
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The document summarizes the anatomy and electrophysiology of the human atrioventricular (AV) node. It describes the AV node's location near the triangle of Koch. Immunohistochemistry reveals the AV node is divided into the lower nodal bundle and compact node based on differences in connexin 43 expression. The dual pathway electrophysiology of the AV node involves faster conduction through the connexin 43-negative compact node and slower conduction through the connexin 43-positive lower nodal bundle and extensions. Understanding the molecular compartmentalization of the AV node provides insight into its roles in cardiac conduction and as a potential arrhythmia substrate.
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This document describes the four main heart sounds and how to auscultate them using a stethoscope. It explains that the first heart sound corresponds to closure of the atrioventricular valves and the R wave of an ECG. The second heart sound corresponds to closure of the semilunar valves and the T wave of an ECG. The third heart sound occurs during rapid ventricular filling between the T and P waves. The fourth heart sound corresponds to atrial contraction between the P and Q waves. It identifies the best areas over the heart to auscultate each sound using a stethoscope.
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This document discusses cardiac output and its measurement. It defines cardiac output as the amount of blood ejected by each ventricle per minute, which is calculated as stroke volume multiplied by heart rate. It describes several methods to measure cardiac output, including the indicator dye dilution method, thermodilution, and measurement of inhaled inert gases. It discusses factors that can cause cardiac output to vary, such as age, sex, environmental temperature, exercise, and various pathological conditions.
Arterial blood pressure
Normal arterial blood pressure ranges from 90-140/60-90 mmHg. Systolic pressure is the maximum pressure when blood is ejected from the heart, while diastolic is the minimum pressure when the heart is resting between beats. Mean arterial pressure, which averages 93 mmHg, is the main driving force for blood flow. Blood pressure is regulated through short term mechanisms like baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes which control heart rate and vascular tone, and long term factors like blood volume and vessel elasticity. Strict control of blood pressure is important to ensure adequate blood flow to vital organs.
Heart blocks
Heart block occurs when the electrical signals that tell the heart to contract are partially or totally blocked between the atria and ventricles, causing the heart to beat too slowly. There are three main types of heart block - first degree, second degree, and third degree (complete heart block). The type of heart block depends on how much the electrical signals are blocked. More advanced heart blocks require treatment such as pacemakers while milder forms often do not require treatment.
SINOATRIAL NODE
The sinoatrial node, located in the wall of the right atrium, is the heart's natural pacemaker. It generates electrical impulses that pass through the heart and cause it to contract. The sinoatrial node initiates action potentials that travel through the conduction system to the atrioventricular node and then to the ventricles. As the primary pacemaker, the sinoatrial node controls the heart rate by regulating the firing of action potentials. Dysfunction or ischemia of the sinoatrial node can lead to irregular heart rhythms.
The pericardium
The pericardium is a fibroserous sac that surrounds the heart and roots of the great vessels. It has two layers - an outer fibrous layer and inner serous layer. The serous layer further divides into the parietal layer lining the fibrous sac and visceral layer adhered to the heart. Between these layers is the pericardial cavity containing fluid. The pericardium functions to support and protect the heart while allowing movement. Conditions like pericarditis or excess fluid accumulation can lead to cardiac tamponade.
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Similar to Heart sounds
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The document discusses heart sounds, including their causes, types, and characteristics. It provides the following key points:
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- The two main types of heart sounds are the first heart sound (S1) and second heart sound (S2). S1 occurs with the closure of the atrioventricular valves at the start of ventricular systole. S2 occurs with the closure of the semilunar valves at the start of ventricular diastole.
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The cardiac cycle refers to the repeating sequence of heart contraction and relaxation as the heart pumps blood throughout the body. It begins with atrial contraction which pumps blood into the ventricles, followed by ventricular contraction which pumps blood out of the heart and into the arteries. The cycle is monitored by an electrocardiogram (ECG) which detects and graphs the electrical activity of the heart muscles. Key waves in the ECG correspond to atrial and ventricular contraction and relaxation phases. Heart sounds are also produced during closure of the valves and provide information about heart function.
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The document discusses heart sounds and how they are generated. It explains that heart sounds are produced by the flow of blood through the heart's chambers and valves as they open and close. There are normally two main heart sounds, S1 and S2, produced by the closing of the atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves respectively. Additional sounds S3 and S4 may sometimes be heard and indicate cardiac abnormalities. Auscultation of the heart with a stethoscope allows doctors to detect normal and abnormal heart sounds and murmurs which provide information about heart function and identify potential issues requiring further evaluation.
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The cardiac cycle describes the sequence of events in one heartbeat. It involves contraction of the myocardium which generates pressure changes, causing blood to flow from areas of high pressure to low pressure through the heart's valves. The cycle includes atrial systole where the atria contract and push blood into the ventricles, followed by isovolumetric contraction where the ventricles contract but their volume does not change as the valves close. Then rapid ejection occurs as the ventricle pressure rises above the arteries and the valves open, pushing blood out of the heart. Reduced ejection follows as blood flows more slowly out of the ventricles until the valves close, ending ventricular systole.
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The cardiac cycle describes the sequence of events in one heartbeat. It involves contraction of the myocardium which generates pressure changes, causing blood to flow from areas of high pressure to low pressure through the heart's valves. The cycle includes atrial systole where the atria contract and push blood into the ventricles, followed by isovolumetric contraction where the ventricles contract but their volume does not change as pressure builds, then rapid ejection when pressure rises enough for the valves to open and blood is ejected from the ventricles into the arteries. This is followed by reduced ejection as blood flow slows before the valves close, ending ventricular systole.
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4) Key metrics like end diastolic volume, stroke volume, end systolic volume
Cardiac cycle & sound
The cardiac cycle describes the repeating pattern of heart contraction and relaxation during one heartbeat. It consists of two phases: systole, when the heart contracts, and diastole, when the heart relaxes and fills with blood. The cardiac cycle involves precise coordination between electrical signals, pressure changes within the heart chambers, opening and closing of valves, and the sounds produced. Key events include atrial systole, ventricular systole with isovolumetric contraction and ejection phases, isovolumetric relaxation, and ventricular filling. The cycle repeats with each heartbeat to pump blood through the body.
Heart sounds ppt.pptx
Heart sounds are produced during the mechanical activities of the heart during each cardiac cycle, namely the flow of blood through chambers, contraction of cardiac muscle, and closure of heart valves. There are normally four heart sounds - first, second, third, and fourth - produced during each cycle. The first and second sounds are the loudest and resemble "LUB" and "DUBB" respectively. Abnormal heart sounds can provide clinical information about cardiovascular conditions.
CVS Item 2.pdf
The document discusses the cardiac cycle, including definitions, events, pressure and volume changes. It describes the four heart sounds, their causes, characteristics and significance. It also discusses the electrocardiogram (ECG), including the waves that make up a normal ECG tracing and their significance. Key events of the cardiac cycle include atrial systole, ventricular systole and diastole. Pressure and volume changes occur in the atria, ventricles, aorta and pulmonary artery. The four heart sounds are produced by specific events in the cardiac cycle. An ECG traces the electrical activity of the heart and can be used to diagnose cardiac conditions.
Heart Sounds - 1
This document provides an overview of heart sounds and their genesis. It discusses the normal S1 and S2 sounds and their components. Factors that can affect the sounds such as abnormalities in cardiac structure, function, electrical conduction are explored. Additional sounds such as S3, S4 and splits are introduced. In summary, heart sounds are produced by vibrations from blood flow and valvular movements, with S1 arising from mitral and tricuspid valve closure and S2 from semilunar valve closure. The document analyzes the production and clinical significance of variations in these normal sounds.
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Heart Sounds.Cardiovascular system by Dr Farhan KGMC peshawar
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Blood
This document summarizes the composition, properties, functions and volume of blood. It discusses that blood consists of cells suspended in plasma. The main cells are red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Plasma is mostly water with dissolved proteins and electrolytes. Bone marrow produces blood cells. Key functions of blood include transport, defense, regulation and hemostasis. The normal blood volume in adults is 5-6 liters. The hematocrit level indicates the proportion of red blood cells and can be used to screen for anemia. The blood and plasma volumes are regulated to maintain homeostasis.
Excitable tissues nerve
1. Excitable tissues include nerve cells, nerve fibers, muscle fibers, and some plant cells that generate action potentials along their cell membranes in response to stimulation.
2. Nerve cells have a cell body containing organelles, dendrites that receive synaptic inputs, and a single axon that conducts electrical impulses to synaptic terminals.
3. Glial cells such as astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells provide support and insulation to neurons in the nervous system.
Cardiovascular physiology intro heart
The atria are the upper chambers of the heart that receive blood from the veins.
Excitable tissues skeletal_muscle
The document discusses skeletal muscle and its structure and function. It contains 3 types of muscle: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal muscle is striated, involuntary muscle that moves the body and maintains posture. It develops tension and produces heat. Skeletal muscle fibers are cylindrical, multinucleated cells containing myofibrils with overlapping actin and myosin filaments that slide past each other to cause contraction. Contraction is initiated by calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in response to action potentials.
Murmurs
This document discusses heart murmurs, which are abnormal sounds caused by turbulent blood flow through the heart. It describes the different types of murmurs:
1) Systolic murmurs occur between the first and second heart sounds and can be caused by valve stenosis or insufficiency.
2) Diastolic murmurs occur between the second heart sound and next first sound, caused by stenosis or insufficiency of different heart valves.
3) Continuous murmurs occur during both systole and diastole, associated with conditions like a patent ductus arteriosus.
It provides examples of specific murmurs caused by abnormalities of the aortic, mitral, and tricuspid valves.
The red blood_corpuscles_(r.b.c.s)
1. Erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells, are biconcave discs that contain hemoglobin and have an average lifespan of 120 days. Their primary function is to carry oxygen from the lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues back to the lungs.
2. Polycythemia is a condition of increased red blood cell count or hemoglobin concentration in the blood. Primary polycythemia is caused by excessive red blood cell production while secondary polycythemia occurs in response to tissue hypoxia such as at high altitudes.
3. Hemoglobin is the iron-containing protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. It is composed of globin proteins and heme groups. Abnormalities
Hemostasis and blood_coagulation
Hemostasis occurs via four mechanisms: vasoconstriction, formation of a platelet plug, formation of a blood clot, and repair of the damaged blood vessel. Blood coagulation involves a cascade of reactions through the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. The extrinsic pathway is initiated by tissue damage and the intrinsic pathway is initiated by contact with foreign surfaces. Both pathways lead to the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin which converts fibrinogen to fibrin to form a clot. Calcium ions, platelets, vitamin K, and the coagulation factors are essential for effective hemostasis and blood coagulation.
Cardiac cycle
The cardiac cycle describes the repeating pattern of heart contraction and relaxation that pumps blood throughout the body. It consists of systole, when the heart contracts to pump blood, and diastole, when the heart relaxes and refills with blood. Each cycle normally occurs at a rate of about 75 times per minute. The cycle includes phases of isometric contraction and relaxation when pressure changes but volume does not, and ejection and filling phases when blood is pumped out or flows into the heart. Precise events in pressure, volume, valve opening and closing, and sounds occur throughout each phase of the cardiac cycle.
C02 transport (carriage)_by_the_blood
1. Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood from tissues to the lungs in both dissolved form and chemically combined as bicarbonate and carbamino compounds.
2. In the tissues, carbon dioxide diffuses into red blood cells where the carbonic anhydrase enzyme converts it mainly to bicarbonate, which then diffuses out of the cells in exchange for chloride ions in a process called the chloride shift.
3. This transport of carbon dioxide and shift of bicarbonate and chloride regulates blood pH and allows for exchange of carbon dioxide in the lungs, where it is released for exhalation.
Regulation of breathing
This document summarizes the regulation of breathing. It discusses both chemical and non-chemical regulation. The chemical regulation is primarily via central and peripheral chemoreceptors that monitor changes in blood gases like CO2, O2 and pH. The central chemoreceptors are located in the brain and respond mainly to CO2, while peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies respond more to changes in O2, CO2 and pH. Non-chemical regulation involves signals from various receptors and parts of the body that influence breathing rate and depth.
Compliance of the_lungs_and_chest_wall
The document discusses compliance of the lungs and chest wall, measurement of respiratory compliance (static vs dynamic), factors that affect lung compliance such as lung size and surface tension, diseases that decrease compliance, work of breathing including elastic and resistive components, factors that increase work of breathing, effects of gravity on ventilation and pulmonary blood flow including differences in regional lung volumes and flows, pneumothorax types including closed, open, and tension pneumothorax and their effects, and artificial pneumothorax as a therapeutic procedure.
Hypoxia acclimatization cyanosis
This document discusses various types of hypoxia including hypoxic, anaemic, stagnant, and histotoxic hypoxia. It also covers topics like acclimatization to high altitudes, cyanosis, oxygen therapy, and carbon monoxide poisoning. The key points are:
1. Hypoxia is defined as oxygen deficiency at the tissue level and can be caused by problems with ventilation, gas exchange, blood flow, or cellular respiration.
2. Acclimatization to high altitudes involves mechanisms like increased ventilation, blood oxygen carrying capacity, circulation, and tissue oxygen delivery over weeks.
3. Cyanosis is a blue skin discoloration caused by abnormally high amounts of deoxygen
Oxygen transport (carriage)_by_the_bl000
1. Oxygen transport by the blood involves oxygen flowing from the alveoli to the tissues via hemoglobin in the blood. The oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin is increased about 70 times compared to dissolved oxygen alone.
2. The oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve shows the relationship between oxygen pressure and hemoglobin saturation. It is sigmoid shaped due to cooperative binding of oxygen.
3. Factors like acidosis, increased temperature, and 2,3-DPG can shift the curve rightward, increasing oxygen unloading to tissues. Fetal hemoglobin and alkalosis shift the curve leftward, decreasing oxygen unloading.
Gas exchange in_the_lungs
This document discusses gas exchange in the lungs. It covers the laws of gases, the partial pressure of gases, standardization of gas volumes, gas dissolution in fluids, gas diffusion through membranes, Fick's law of gas diffusion, the alveolar-capillary membrane, gas exchange across this membrane, equilibration of respiratory gases in the lungs, and the diffusion capacity of the lung. The key points are that oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood while carbon dioxide diffuses out, and the solubility of carbon dioxide is much higher than oxygen allowing for faster diffusion.
Pulmonary surfactant
The document discusses pulmonary surfactant, which reduces surface tension in the lungs. It describes the composition of surfactant, which contains phospholipids like phosphatidylcholine and proteins. Phosphatidylcholine is the most abundant lipid and reduces surface tension. Surfactant is synthesized in alveolar type II cells and stored in lamellar bodies. Hormones like glucocorticoids and estrogen increase surfactant production through various enzymatic pathways. Surfactant is essential for lung function as it prevents alveolar collapse and facilitates gas exchange.
Mechanism (mechanics) of_breathing
Breathing is controlled by respiratory centers located in the brain stem and spinal cord. The medullary respiratory centers include the dorsal respiratory group (DRG), ventral respiratory group (VRG), and Botzinger complex. The DRG contains inspiratory neurons that promote inspiration, while the VRG contains expiratory neurons that promote expiration. The pontine respiratory group in the pons modulates the medullary centers. Rhythmic breathing occurs through reciprocal inhibition between inspiratory and expiratory neurons. Inspiration is an active process involving contraction of the diaphragm and rib muscles, while expiration is usually passive due to lung elasticity.
Alveolar stability
This document discusses factors that contribute to alveolar stability in the lungs. Alveolar stability is maintained by two main factors: surfactant and alveolar interdependence. Surfactant acts to reduce surface tension in small alveoli, preventing their collapse. Alveolar interdependence describes how neighboring alveoli support each other's volume. Together, surfactant and interdependence help maintain equal pressure across alveoli of different sizes. The document also discusses the elastic properties of the respiratory system, including how the recoiling forces of the lungs and chest wall interact to determine intrapulmonary pressure at different lung volumes.
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Heart sounds
- 1. HEART SOUNDS
- 2. LECTURE OUTLI NES / OBJECTIVES List the major types of normal heart sounds Understand the physiological basis for the production of normal heart sounds Understand the patho-physiological basis for the production of heart murmurs STUDENTS ABLE TO UNDERSTAND:
- 3. HEART SOUNDS Heart sounds are made by the closure of the heart valves and the acceleration and deceleration or vibration of valves due to blood flow in the cardiac chambers. First and second heart sounds are normally heard during each cardiac cycle. One may hear a 3rd or 4th heart sound. Guyton and Hall
- 4. WHERE WE CAN HEAR THE HEART SOUNDS Guyton and Hall
- 5. FIRST HEART SOUND (S1) First heart sound is produced due to the closure of Atrio- ventricular valves (Tricuspid and Mitral). It occurs at the beginning of the systole Sounds like LUB Frequency: 25-45 CPS (cycles per second) or Hz. Soft when the heart rate is slow because ventricles are well filled with blood and the leaflets of the A-V valves float together before systole begins. Time: 0.14 sec [Guyton]; 0.15 Sec [Ganongs] Guyton and Hall Ganongs
- 6. SECOND HEART SOUND (S2) This sound is produced by the vibration associated with the closure of the semilunar valves (aortic and pulmonary) at the end of ventricular systole. ECG relationship: The second heart sound occur soon after the T-wave of ECG. Duration: 0. 11 sec [Guyton]; 0.12 [Ganong]. Frequency: 50 Hz or CPS. This sound is sharp and loud and described as “DUB.” Two sub components Pulmonary component heard at the level of 2nd left intercostal space. Aortic component is heard at the level of the 2nd right interscostal space near the right border of the sternum. Guyton and Hall; Ganong
- 7. SECOND HEART SOUND (S2) The S2 duration is 0.11 Sec and S1 is about 0.14 second The reason for the shorter S2 is that semilunar valves are more tight than A-V valves, so they vibrate for a shorter time than A-V valve The S2 has higher frequency than the S1 for two reasons: 1. The tautness of the semilunar valves than A-V valves 2. The greater elastic coefficient of the taut arterial walls that provide the principal vibrating chambers for the S2. Second heart sound has physiological inspiratory splitting Guyton and Hall Chest wall expands during inspiration Intrathoracic pressure becomes more negative to form a vacuum Venous return from the body to the right heart increases, venous return from the lungs to the left heart decreases
- 8. THIRD HEART SOUND (S3) Occurs at the beginning of middle third of Diastole Cause of third heart sound Rush of blood from Atria to Ventricle during rapid filling phase of Cardiac Cycle. It causes vibration in the blood Frequency:20-30 Htz Time: 0.1 sec
- 9. FOURTH HEART SOUND (S4) OR ATRIAL SOUND Occurs at the last one third of Diastole [Just before S1] Produced due to Atrial contraction which causes rapid flow of blood from Atria to Ventricle and vibration in the blood. Frequency: 20 cycles / sec or less [Htz] Third and Fourth heart sound are low pitched sounds therefore not easily audible normally with stethoscope S3 may be heard in children and young adults
- 10. Heart Sound Occurs during: Associated with: S1 Isovolumetric contraction Closure of mitral and tricuspid valves S2 Isovolumetric relaxation Closure of aortic and pulmonic valves S3 Early ventricular filling Normal in children; in adults, associated with ventricular dilation (e.g. ventricular systolic failure) S4 Atrial contraction Associated with stiff, low compliant ventricle (e.g., ventricular hypertrophy SUMMARY OF HEART SOUND
- 11. VS VD HEART SOUNDS: ASSOCIATION WITH CARDIAC CYCLE HEART SOUNDS 0.3Sec. 0.5 sec. 1 st Heart Sound 2 nd Heart Sound 3 rd Heart Sound 4 th Heart Sound AS – Atrial Systole; AD – Atrial Diastole ; VS – Ventricular systole; VD – Ventricular diastole
- 12. CARDIAC CYCLE: ASSOCIATION WITH HEART SOUNDS Guyton and Hall
- 13. CARDIAC CYCLE: ASSOCIATION WITH HEART SOUNDS Ganongs
- 14. GALLOPS In some heart diseases (specially left veutricular failure) and certain other conditions (e.g. severe anemia and thyrotoxicosis), the 3rd or 4h heart sound is augmented and becomes audible More than 2 sounds will be heard during each cardiac cycle, and these sounds follow each other in a rhythm similar to that produced by a galloping horse