I searched around Google and haven't found a complete pack of content for "Growth and Development of all age groups"...
This slide has enough content about Growth and Development of all age groups.....!!
This includes the physical development , motor - gross and fine motor development , language development , intellectual development , psychosocial development , play, common health problems and areas of health education of the school aged children .(6 - 12 years)
When it comes to good positions to use while breastfeeding, your comfort as well as the ease with which your baby will be able to feed is the first and foremost concern. Finding a position that you are most comfortable and happy with will make it easier for your baby to latch on to your breasts and feed with ease. Here are some of the best breast-feeding positions that you might use when you are breastfeeding.
This slides contain description about breast feeding, anatomy of breast, types of human milk, good position for latching, holding for the baby, advantages of breast feeding, contraindication of breast feeding, barriers and problems associated with breast feeding with their management
it is method of feeding the baby ,for the full fill of nutritional requirement ,if mother milk is not available . it is vital for maintaining the nutritional level in baby.
This includes the physical development , motor - gross and fine motor development , language development , intellectual development , psychosocial development , play, common health problems and areas of health education of the school aged children .(6 - 12 years)
When it comes to good positions to use while breastfeeding, your comfort as well as the ease with which your baby will be able to feed is the first and foremost concern. Finding a position that you are most comfortable and happy with will make it easier for your baby to latch on to your breasts and feed with ease. Here are some of the best breast-feeding positions that you might use when you are breastfeeding.
This slides contain description about breast feeding, anatomy of breast, types of human milk, good position for latching, holding for the baby, advantages of breast feeding, contraindication of breast feeding, barriers and problems associated with breast feeding with their management
it is method of feeding the baby ,for the full fill of nutritional requirement ,if mother milk is not available . it is vital for maintaining the nutritional level in baby.
Its abt normal developmental milestones of a child from birth till 1 year.... Especially normal motor milestones...
"Because once u dont knw whts normal, u cant knw n differentiate between an abnormal"
A journey in the stages of human development, the growth from a one-celled zygote into an adult human being! Going through pregnancy, newborns, toddlers, teens, adults, and late adulthood.
Similar to Growth and development of all age groups | Juhin J (20)
Tips to reduce alcohol intake:
- Gradually reduce the number of drinks
- Use smaller glasses
- Substitute a glass of water in between alcoholic drinks
- Change triggering environment
- Change from your preferred alcoholic drink to one you do not like
- Don't stock up on alcohol
- Be realistic
- Find healthy coping mechanism
Digital Addiction | Psycho Education | Juhin JJuhin J
Digital Addiction:
---Signs & Symptoms---
- Unable to leave your house without phone
- Compelled to check the phone constantly for no particular reason
- Eating with your phone on the table
- Feeling anxious or depressed after using social media
- Obsessed over sending or recieving a text or posting a comment
- Feeling afraid of missing out
---Management---
- Start the day without mobile phone
- Turn off devices 30 minutes before bed
- Delete time setealing apps from your phone
- Turn off notifications
- Only respond to emails and texts at specific times of the day
Stress Management:
- Get enough sleep (6-8 hours)
- Be active
- Engage in meditation and yoga
- Eat well
- Take a break
- Talk to someone
- Practice deep breathing
Tips to improve Sleep Quality:
- Establish a regular bedtime and waking time
- Do regular exercise
- Use comfortable bed
- Make sure your bedroom is quiet, dark with good ventilation
- Switch off your electronic devices 30-60 minutes before bed
- Avoid taking heavy foods before sleep
- Reduce intake of water before bed
- Avoid coffee, alcohol & nicotine intake
Warning Signs of Mental Illness:
- Excessive sadness & anxiety lasting more than 2 weeks
- Sleeping or eating more/less than usual
- Inability to perform daily tasks
- Harming self
- Increased use of alcohol or other substances
- Unusual mood changes
- Decreased performance
- Believing things that aren't real
Rights of Special Groups | Constitution of Indian | Juhin JJuhin J
Rights are rules of interaction between people. These are legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or entitlement and are the fundamental normative rules about what is allowed to people according to some legal system, social convention, or ethical theory.
Special groups are those who need special attention such as children, women, HIV, handicapped, aged and mentally ill. To protect these groups, these rights have been formulated by the constitution.
Continuing Nursing Education(CNE) is the process directed towards the personal and professional growth of nurses and other personnel while they are employed by a health care agency. It is essential for the upliftment of personal as well as administrative field. CNE helps in updating the knowledge and practice of professional. It is applicable not only to nursing field but also to all the professional fields.
Socioeconomic Status Scale | Nursing Education | Juhin JJuhin J
Socioeconomic status(SES) is a combination of both social and economic variables. It is one of the most important social determinants of health and disease. It influences the accessibility, affordability, acceptability and actual utilization of available health facilities.
Alternative Systems of Medicine in Mental Health | AYUSH | CAM | Juhin JJuhin J
Alternative Systems of Medicine in Mental Health | AYUSH | Complementary Alternative Medicine CAM | Juhin J
Medical products and practices that are not part of standard care is called alternative medicine. Standard care is what medical doctors and allied health professionals, such as nurses and physical therapists, practice. Alternative medicine is used in the place of standard medical care.
HERBAL: The use of plants to heal is probably as old as human kind. Virtually every culture in the world has relied on herbs & plants to treat illness. Many people are seeking a return to herbal remedies because they perceive these remedies as being less potent than prescription drugs and as being free of adverse side effects.
UNANI: According to the principles of unani medicine, disease is a natural process. Its symptoms are the reactions of the body to the disease.
SIDDHA: Siddha System of Medicine in an ancient Science, which belongs to Dravidian culture. It is very useful in maintenance and restoration of good health. Siddha system accounted for total 4448 disease symptoms and its cure. Thousands of herbs and mineral were Included in Siddha system providing good and easy management of chronic to degenerative, viral to cardiac disease.
HOMEOPATHY: Homeopathic remedies are typically derived from plants, herbs, minerals, or animal products. After being crushed and dissolved in alcohol or water, the selected substance undergoes a long process of dilution and succession (a process that involves vigorous shaking of the solution). The solution is then stored.
ACCUPUNCTURE: Acupuncture technique means penetrating the acupoints with hair thin, sterile, disposable, stainless needles to dissolve the obstructions along the meridians.
ACCUPRESSURE: Acupressure is similar in practice to acupuncture, but no needles are involved.
Disorders of Thought and Perception | Mental Health & Psychiatric Nursing | J...Juhin J
The ideas or arrangement of ideas that result from thinking is called thought. Thinking represent the most common form of mental activity. All human achievements and progress are the products of thought. Thought disorder is a disorganized way of thinking that leads to abnormal ways of expressing language when speaking and writing. It is one of the most difficult disorders to diagnose.
Impulse Control Disorder | Psychiatric Nursing | Juhin JJuhin J
Impulse control disorder happens when a person often unable to resist the sudden, forceful urge to do something that may violate the rights of others or conflict with societal norms. These impulsive behaviors may occur repeatedly, quickly and without consideration of the consequences of the actions.
Personality means enduring qualities of a person in many circumstances. It includes perceptions, attitudes and emotions. These behaviors and characteristics are consistent across a broad range of situations and do not change easily. A person usually is not consciously aware of his/ her personality. Many factors influence personality; some stem from biologic and genetic makeup, whereas some are acquired as a person develops and interacts with the environment and other people. These qualities develop into personality traits(Characters).
PERSONALITY TRAITS:
The most widely used system of personality trait is called Five- Factor Model. This includes, Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism. Each trait is further divided into several trait facets to analyse one’s personality clearly. Several theorists still argue that there are more traits which have not been captured by this five-factor model.
Openness people loves adventure, appreciate art, imagination and learn new things throughout their life time. Meanwhile low openness people avoid new experiences, stick to their habits and not adventure lovers.
Conscientiousness people are dependable, disciplined and achievement focused. Meanwhile low conscientiousness people are more spontaneous and careless, when extreme.
Extraversion people/ Extroverts are cheerful, sociable and draw energy from crowds. Meanwhile introverts love to be alone. Commonly people think introversion and shyness are same. They both are different. Shyness people has fear of social interaction meanwhile introverts are cheerful but they prefer solo or small group activities.
Agreeableness people are warmth, kind, helpful, compassionate and trust worthy. Meanwhile disagreeable people are cold and suspicious of others.
High Neuroticism people experience lot of negative emotion. Meanwhile low neuroticism people will be emotionally stable.
Personality disorder is defined as, “characteristic and enduring pattern of inner experience (or) behavior as a whole marked deviation for a level of exception and acceptable range of individuals’ culture”. – ICD 10
Persons with histrionic personality disorder are excitable and emotional and behave in a colorful, dramatic, extroverted fashion. Inability to maintain sincere, long-lasting attachments. They are unaware of their true feelings and cannot explain their motivations. With age, the symptoms of histrionic personality disorder will come down. But patients will feel hard to handle it because they lack the energy they had earlier.
Individuals with narcissistic personality disorder have a heightened sense of self-importance, lack of empathy and grandiose feelings of uniqueness. Underneath, however, their self-esteem is fragile and vulnerable to even minor criticism. Narcissistic symptoms diminish after 40 years of age.
Persons with avoidant personality disorder show extreme sensitivity to rejection and may lead socially withdrawn lives. Although shy, they are not asocial and show a great desire for companionship, but they need unusually strong guarantees of uncritical acceptance. We often describe this group as having an inferiority complex. Some marry, have children, and live their lives surrounded only by family members. If their support system fails, however, they are subject to depression, anxiety, and anger.
Primary sleep disorders:
Primary sleep disorders are those disorders not attributable to another cause, which includes dyssomnias and parasomnias.
Dyssomnias: are primary disorders of initiating or maintaining sleep/ excessive sleepiness, characterized by abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep.
Insomnia:
Difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep or nonrestorative sleep that lasts for 1 month and causes significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
Hypersomnia:
Excessive sleepiness for atleast 1 month that involves either prolonged sleep episodes or daily daytime sleeping that causes significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other functioning.
Narcolepsy:
A rare sleep disorder in which a person, usually under the age of 20, has recurrent sudden episodes of irresistible sleep attacks of short duration 10 - 15 minutes (directly enters into REM sleep).
Breathing related sleep disorder:
Sleep disruption leading to excessive sleepiness or, less commonly, insomnia, caused by abnormalities in ventilation during sleep. These disorders include obstructive sleep apnea (repeated episodes of upper airway obstruction), central sleep apnea (episodic cessation of sventilation without airway obstruction), and central alveolar hypoventilation (hypoventilation resulting in low arterial oxygen levels).
Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder:
Persistent or recurring sleep disruption resulting from altered functioning of circadian rhythm or a mismatch between circadian rhythm and external demands. Subtypes include; delayed sleep phase, jet lag, shift work and unspecified.
Delayed sleep phase: A persistent pattern of late sleep onset and late awakening times, with an inability to fall asleep and awaken at a desired earlier time.
Jet lag: Sleepiness and alertness that occur at an inappropriate time of day relative to local time, occurring after repeated travel across more than one time zone.
Shift work: Insomnia during the major sleep period or excessive sleepiness during the major awake period associated with night shift work or frequently changing shift work.
Parasomnias: are disorders characterized by abnormal behavioral or psychological events associated with sleep, specific sleep stages, or sleep–wake transition. These disorders involve activation of physiological systems, such as the autonomic nervous system, motor system, or cognitive processes, at inappropriate times during sleep.
Nightmare disorder:
Repeated occurrence of frightening dreams that lead to waking from sleep.
Sleep terror disorder:
Repeated occurrence of abrupt awakenings from sleep associated with a panicky scream or cry.
Sleepwalking disorder (Somnambulism):
Repeated episodes of complex motor behavior initiated during sleep, including getting out of bed and walking around.
Personality means enduring qualities of a person in many circumstances. It includes perceptions, attitudes and emotions. These behaviors and characteristics are consistent across a broad range of situations and do not change easily. A person usually is not consciously aware of his/ her personality. Many factors influence personality; some stem from biologic and genetic makeup, whereas some are acquired as a person develops and interacts with the environment and other people. These qualities develop into personality traits(Characters).
PERSONALITY TRAITS:
The most widely used system of personality trait is called Five- Factor Model. This includes, Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism. Each trait is further divided into several trait facets to analyse one’s personality clearly. Several theorists still argue that there are more traits which have not been captured by this five-factor model.
Openness people loves adventure, appreciate art, imagination and learn new things throughout their life time. Meanwhile low openness people avoid new experiences, stick to their habits and not adventure lovers.
Conscientiousness people are dependable, disciplined and achievement focused. Meanwhile low conscientiousness people are more spontaneous and careless, when extreme.
Extraversion people/ Extroverts are cheerful, sociable and draw energy from crowds. Meanwhile introverts love to be alone. Commonly people think introversion and shyness are same. They both are different. Shyness people has fear of social interaction meanwhile introverts are cheerful but they prefer solo or small group activities.
Agreeableness people are warmth, kind, helpful, compassionate and trust worthy. Meanwhile disagreeable people are cold and suspicious of others.
High Neuroticism people experience lot of negative emotion. Meanwhile low neuroticism people will be emotionally stable.
Personality disorder is defined as, “characteristic and enduring pattern of inner experience (or) behavior as a whole marked deviation for a level of exception and acceptable range of individuals’ culture”. – ICD 10
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a chronic and relapsing anxiety disorder that is characterized by persistent obsessive thoughts and/or repetitive compulsive actions that impair daily functioning. The repetitive actions can be mental or physical acts, either of which is perceived by the individual as reducing anxiety. Individuals with OCD might recognize the irrationality of their anxiety-driven patterns, they feel helpless to resist the compulsive urges that serve as dysfunctional coping mechanisms to reduce anxiety. Many patients prefer to keep ritualistic compulsions such as repetitive checking of locks or repeated hand washing a secret because they are ashamed of their illogical behavior.
Definition:
Obsession: Repetitive thoughts, images and doubts which make a person absolutely senseless and irrational. Individual tries to resist but finds unable to do so because that restriction might increase the level of anxiety.
Compulsion: Repetitive actions are performed followed by obsession in order to avoid the marked distress even though the client knows that behavior is unrealistic, senseless and irrational.
Etiology/ Predisposing factors:
I. Biological Theories:
a) Neurotransmitters:
Studies have suggested that changes in brain serotonin(5-HT) function may contribute to anxiety symptoms and anxiety type behaviors. Among anxiety disorders, the most compelling evidence implicating 5-HT exists for OCD.
OCD patients were found to have higher plasma free 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy-phenylglycol and plasma norepinephrine levels. The maximum number of binding sites (Bmax) for tritiated clonidine was significantly greater in OCD patients than in normal people. There was a blunted growth hormone, cortisol and ACTH response to clonidine in OCD.
b) Genetics:
Family studies: 35% of first-degree relatives of OCD clients might suffer from this disorder.
Twin studies: Monozygotic twins are more prone to it as compared to dizygotic twins.
c) Electrophysiological Studies:
Electroencephalography: Many of the earlier reports suggested EEG abnormalities in OCD. Temporal lobe spikes and increased theta waves have been reported in sleep EEG or OCD subjects.
Evoked Potentials: Higher N60 amplitudes were found in somatosensory evoked patients in OCD. Obsessional patients are characterized by reduced amplitudes and decreased latencies of late EP component.
d) Brain Imaging:
Cranial CT and MRI scans: An increase in ventricular-brain ratio was found in cranial CT in OCD. Subsequent studies have shown similar results in caudate nuclei. Earlier reports found non-specific abnormalities on Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the brains in OCD.
Management:
IV. Psychosurgery:
There are various procedures that have been used in treatment of OCD. They are as follows;
• Prefrontal leucotomy
• Transorbital leucotomy
• Biomedical leucotomy
• Orbital leucotomy
• Rostral leucotomy
• Limbic leucotomy
• Subcaudate tractotomy
Hallucinogenic substances are capable of distorting an individual’s perception of reality. They have the ability to alter sensory perception and induce hallucinations. Substance induced hallucinations are usually visual.
The term opioid refers to a group of compounds that includes opium, opium derivatives, and synthetic substitutes. Opioids exert both a sedative and an analgesic effect, and used to relieve pain, cough and treatment of diarrhea. They induce a pleasurable effect on the CNS that promotes abuse. These drugs are capable of inducing tolerance and physiological and psychological addiction.
Inhalant disorders are induced by inhaling the aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons found in substances such as fuels, solvents, adhesives, aerosol propellants, and paint thinners. When inhaled, they cause euphoria, sedation, emotional lability, and impaired judgment.
Delirium is an organic cerebral syndrome characterized by concurrent disturbances of consciousness and attention, perception, thinking, memory, psychomotor behavior, emotion and sleep wake schedule.
Delirium Tremens is a psychotic condition caused by complications from alcohol withdrawal. It involves tremors, hallucination, anxiety and disorientation.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
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Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
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These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
2. Growth means an increase in the size
of an organism or part of an organism, usually
as a result of an increase in the number of
cells. Growth of an organism may stop at
maturity, as in the case of humans and other
mammals, or it may continue throughout life.
3. A gradual change and expansion;
advancement from lower to more advanced
stages of complexity; the emerging and
expanding of the individuals capacities
through growth, maturation and learning.
4. The period from birth to 28 days of
life is called neonatal period and the infant in
this period is termed as neonate or newborn
baby.
5. Rooting reflex:-
When the cheek or corner of the mouth
is stroked, the infant’s head should turn
towards the stimulus and the mouth should
open.
11. Doll’s Eye reflex:-
When you are showing an object to a
newborn, normally eyes don’t move but the
head turns to the right or left side towards
the object.
15. Yawn reflex:-
Infant has spontaneous response to
decreased oxygen by increasing amount of
inspired air, persists throughout life.
16. Cough reflex:-
Irritation of mucous membranes of
larynx or tracheonchial tree causes coughing,
persists throughout the life; Usually present
after 1st day of birth.
18. Tonic neck reflex:-
Turning the head quickly to one side while
the baby is supine, arm and legs on the side
the head is turned towards extent, arm and
legs on the opposite side.
19. Perez reflex:-
While baby is prone on firm surface and
thumb is passed along spine, defecation and
urination may occur; disappears by 4-6
months.
20. Galat reflex:-
While baby is prone on firm surface
and thumb is passed along spine, defecation
and urination may occur; disappears by 4-6
months.
22. Plantar grasp:-
When objects touch the soul of the foot
at the base of the toes, toes grasps around
very small object.
23. Dancing or Stepping reflex:-
Hold newborn in a vertical position
with the feet touching a flat firm surface,
there will be a rapid alternating flexion and
extention of the legs.
24. Placing reflex:-
When baby is held
upright under arms and
dorsal side of foot, it
briskly places against hard
objects such as table, leg
lifts as if foot is stepping on
the table, the age of
disappearance varies.
25. Moro reflex:-
The newborn head is suddenly allowed to
drop backward an inch, there will be
symmetric abduction and extension of the
arms and legs with flanning of fingers.
26. Ankle reflex:-
Briskly dorsi flexing foot while supporting
knee in partially flexed position results in 1-2
oscillating movements, eventually no beats
should be felt.
27. Love and affection
Human contact
Sensory stimulation
Sucking
Breast feeding 2-3 hours
Maintain body temperature
Hygienic needs
Prevention of injury/aspiration
Prevention of infection and injury
Provision of optimal nutrition
Watch for danger signs of newborn like hypothermia,
hypoglycemia, jaundice, apnea, etc.
28. Mile stones:
▪ 1st month : Social smile
▪ 2nd month : Cooos/Vocalize
▪ 3rd month : Head control
▪ 4th month : Hand control
▪ 5th month : Turns over
▪ 6th month : Sits alone
▪ 7th month : Crawl
▪ 8th month : Creeping
▪ 9th month : Stands with support
▪ 10th month : Walks with support
▪ 11th month : Stands alone
▪ 12th month : Walks alone
29. Reflexes:
Primitive reflexes present and strong
Doll’s eye reflex and dance reflex fading
Obligatory nose breathing (most infants)
Gross motor:
Assumes flexed position with pelvis high but knees not under
abdomen when prone.
Can turn head side to side when prone.
In sitting position, back is uniformly rounded with absence of
head control.
Fine motor:
Grasp reflex strong
Hand clenches on contact with rattle
30. Reflexes:
Posterior fontanel closed
Crawling reflex disappears
Gross motor:
Less head lag when pulled to sitting position
Can maintain head in same plane
When prone, can lift head almost 45 degrees
Fine motor:
Hands often open
Grasp reflex fading
31. Reflexes:
Primitive reflexes fading
Gross motor:
Able to hold head more erect when sitting.
Assumes symmetric body positioning
When held in standing position, able to hear slight
fraction of weight on legs.
Fine motor:
Actively holds rattle but will not reach for it.
Grasp reflex absent
Pulls at blankets and clothes
32. Reflexes:
Drolling begins
Moro, tonic neck and rooting reflexes have disappears
Gross motor:
Has almost no head lag when pulled to sitting position
Balances head well in sitting position
Rolls from back to side
Able to sit erect if propped up
Fine motor:
Inspects and plays with hands; pulls clothing or blanket over face in play
Tries to reach objects with hand but overshoots
Grasp object with both hands
Play with rattle placed in hand, shakes it but cannot pick it up if dropped.
Can carry objects to mouth
33. Physical:
Beginning signs of tooth eruption
Birth weight doubles
Gross motor:
Able to sit for longer periods when back is well supported back
straight
When sitting, able to hold head erect and steady
Can turn over from abdomen to back
When supine, pulls feet to mouth.
Fine motor:
Able to grasp objects voluntarily
Uses palmar grasp, bidextrous approach
Plays with toes
Takes object directly to mouth
Holds one cube while regarding a second one
34. Physical:
Growth rate may begin to decline
Weight gain of 90-150 g weekly for next 6 months.
Height gain of 1.25 cm monthly for next 6 months
Teething may begin with eruption of two lower central incisors.
Chewing and biting may occur
Gross motor:
When prone, can lift chest and upper abdomen off surface, bearing weight on hands
Sits in high chair with back straight
Rolls from back to abdomen
When held in standing position, bears almost all of weight
Fine motor:
Resecures a dropped object
Drops one cube when another is given
Grasps and manipulates small objects
Holds bottle
Grasps feet and pulls to mouth
35. Physical:
Eruption of upper central incisors
Gross motor:
Sits, leaning forward on both hands
When prone, bears weight on one hand
Sits erect momentarily
Bears full weight on feet
When held in standing position, bounces actively
Fine motor:
Transfers object from one hand to another
Has unidextrous approach and grasp
Holds two cubes more than momentarily
Bangs cubes on table
36. Physical:
Parachute reflex appears
Begins to show regular patterns in bladder and bowel
elimination
Fine motor:
Sits steadily unsupported
Adjusts posture to reach an object
May stand by holding a furniture
Gross motor:
Retains two cubes while regarding third cube
Rings bell purposely
Releases objects at will
Reaches persistently for toys out of reach
37. Physical:
Eruption of upper lateral incisor may begin
Fine motor:
Creeps on hands and knees
Sits steadily on floor for prolonged time (10 minutes)
Pulls self to standing position and holds a furniture
Recovers balance when leaning forward but cannot do so
when leaning sideways.
Gross motor:
Grasp third cube
Compares two cubes by bringing them together
Preference for use of dominant hand now evident
38. Reflexes:
Labyrinth- righting reflex is strongest when infant is in
prone or supine position; is able to raise hand
Gross motor:
Can change from prone to sitting position
Stands while holding onto furniture, sits by falling down
Recovers balance easily while sitting
While standing lifts one foot to take a step
Fine motor:
Crude release of an object beginning
Grasps bell by handle
39. Physical:
Eruption of lower lateral incisor may begin
Gross motor:
When sitting, pivots to reach toward back to pickup an
object.
Cruises or walks holding unto furniture or with both hands
held
Fine motor:
Explores objects more thoroughly
Has neat pincher grasp
Drops object deliberately for it to be picked up
Puts one object after another into a container
40. Physical:
Birth weight tripled
Birth length increased by 50%
Dentition: has 6-8 deciduous teeth
Anterior fontanel almost closed
Babinski reflex disappears
Landau reflex fading
Lumbar curve develops, lordosis evident during walking
Gross motor:
May attempt to stand momentarily, may attempt first step alone
Can sit down from standing position without help
Fine motor:
Releases cube in cup
Attempts to build two block tower but fails
Tries to insert a pellet into a narrow necked bottle but fails
Can turn pages, many at a time.
41. Psychosocial (Erick Erickson)
[Sense of trustVs Mistrust]
Trust – Firm believing the reliability, truth or
ability of someone or something
Mistrust – Lack of trust or confidence; distrust.
Complete dependence on care giver
42. Psycho sexual (Freud)
[Oral stage] –This is the first social and sexual
stage of an infant’s development, during
which the infant focuses on satisfying hunger.
This is satisfied by chewing, sucking and
biting.
46. Language/ Speech development:
Receptive language:
Responds to human voices
Expressive language:
Cries when hungry or uncomfortable
6 – 8 words at one year
47. Play: (New Hall)
[Solitary play]Alone; without companions;
done without assistance or accompaniment
Infants can play alone for longer periods.
48. Need for sucking and safety
Play and sensory stimulation
Need for warmth
Discipline leading to self control
Developmental self esteem
Meeting the nutritional need.
49. 1YEAR:
Gross motor:
▪ Walks without help
▪ Creeps upstairs
▪ Kneels without support
▪ Cannot throw ball without falling
▪ Runs clumsily
▪ Falls often
Fine motor:
▪ Constantly casting objects to floor
▪ Builds tower of two cubes
▪ Holds two cubes in one hand
▪ Releases a pellet in an narrow-necked bottle
▪ Scribbles spontaneously
▪ Uses cup well but often rotates spoon before it
50. Physical development:
Head circumference: 49- 50 cm
Chest circumference exceeds head circumference
Usual weight gain of 1.8 – 2.7 kg per year
Usual height gain of 10 – 12.5 cm per year
Primary dentition of 16 teeth
Beginning of daytime bowel and bladder control
Gross motor:
Goes up and down stairs alone with two feet on each step
Picks up object without falling
Kicks ball forward without over balancing
Fine motor:
Builds tower of 6 or 7 cubes
Aligns two or more cubes like a train
Turns pages of book one at a time
In drawing, imitates vertical and circular strokes
Unscrews lid
Turns door knob
Able to remember and imitate some actions and gestures
51. Physical development:
Birth weight quadrupled
Primary dentition (20 teeth) completed
May have daytime bladder control
Gross motor:
Jumps with both feet
Jumps form chair or step
Stands on one foot momentarily
Takes a few steps on tiptoe
Fine motor:
Builds tower of eight cubes
Adds chimney blocks to train of block
Good hand-finger coordination; holds crayon with fingers rather than fist
In drawing, imitates vertical and horizontal strokes; makes two or more
strokes for cross; draws circle.
52. Psycho social (Erick Erickson)
[AutonomyVs Shame]
Autonomy – The right of a person, an
organization, region etc.
Shame – The unpleasant feeling of guilt and
embarrassment that you get when you have
done stupid or morally wrong.
53. Psycho sexual (Freud)
[Anal stage] – Obtain pleasure from the feeling
of a distended bladder, from masses of feaces
in the rectum and from release of content
from those organs.
55. Intellectual development (Jean Piaget)
Preoperational (2 to 7 years)
Pre-conceptional phase (2 to 4 years)
Beginning of mental representation of events
and differentiates past and present.
56. Moral development (Kohl berg)
[Pre conventional morality stage]
Birth to 2 yrs –The good is what the child like
and wants
2 to 3 yrs – Child is punished for doing
something, its wrong; if not punished it must
be right.
58. Play (New Hall)
[Parallel play] – A form of play in which a very
young child plays independently in the
presence of another child or children.
59. Negativism – Doing opposite thing
Temper tantrum – Roll on floor, shouting,
asking aloud, holding breath.
Ritualistic behavior – Particular activity is
performed in particular manner only.
Ambivalence – Demonstrating love and hatred
toward same person at same time.
Curiosity – Interested to know more on things.
Dawdling – Slowness in doing works.
Ego centric –Thinks that everything belongs to
them.
60. Love and security
Security blanket – toys/ articles of parents.
Toilet training
Development of self esteem
Dental care
Setting of limits
Encouragement for independence
Feeding, dressing, toileting and Grooming
61. 3YEARS:
Gross motor:
Rides tricycle
Jumps off bottom step
Stands on one foot for few seconds
Goes upstairs using alternate feet; may still come down using both feet on
step.
Broad jumps
May turn to dance, but balance may not be adequate
Fine motor:
Builds tower of 9-10 cubes
Builds bridge with three cubes
Adeptly places small pellets in narrow-necked bottle
In drawing, copies a circle imitates a cross, names what has been drawn;
cannot draw stick figure but may make circle with facial features.
62. Gross motor:
Skips and hops on one foot
Catches ball reliably
Throws ball overhead
Walks down stairs with alternate footing.
Fine motor:
Uses scissors successfully to cut out picture following
outline
Can lace shoes but may not be able to tie bow
In drawing, copies a square, traces a cross and diamond,
adds three parts to stick figure.
63. Gross motor:
Skips and hops on alternate feet
Throws and catches ball well
Jumps rope
Skates with good balance
Walks backward with heel to toe
Jumps form height of 12 inches and lands on toes
Balances on alternate feet with eyes closed
Fine motor:
Ties shoelaces
Uses scissors, simple tools, or pencil very well
In drawing, copies a diamond and triangle; adds seven to nine parts to
stick figure; prints few letters, numbers or words, such as first name.
64. Psychosocial (Erick Erickson)
[Sense of initiativeVs Guilt]
Initiative – An introductory act or step; leading
action.
Guilt – A feeling of responsibility or remorse for
some offense, crime, wrong
Independent and trust worthy, they are ready to
find out what they can do.
65. Psycho sexual (Freud)
[Phallic stage]
Oedipus complex – Boys desire their mothers
while experiencing an increased hostility
towards their fathers.
Electra complex – Girls want their fathers and
find their mothers in their way.
67. Intellectual development (Jean Piaget)
[Intuitive phase] (4-7 yrs)
Children can repeat the event in play that occurred many
hours or day before.
Unable to accomplish true inductive or deductive reasoning.
Believes that all objects in the environment are there to
satisfy the human needs.
Oral development:
[Pre conventional morality] – Strictly for the purpose of self
interest that to avoid punishment and to have favors
turned.
69. Play (New Hall)
[Co-operative play] – Children begins to
exchange ideas with other children and
gradually interact in play activities.
70. Selfishness
Hurting others
Destructiveness
Enuresis
Encopresis
Bad language
Masturbation
Sibling rivalry
71. Love and security
Independence
Managing the bed time problems
Discipline leading to self-control
Meeting the nutritional needs
Accident prevention
Respect individuality of children
Potential and mastery of self-control
Provide a sense of initiation
Toileting, napping, health practices
Play indoor & outdoor games.
72. 6YEARS:
Motor changes:
Central mandibular incisor erupt
Loses first tooth
Gradual increase in dexterity
Often returns to finger feeding
Likes to draw, print, color
Vision reaches maturity
Mental changes:
Develops concept of numbers
Can count 13 rupees
Knows whether it is morning or afternoon
Defines common objects such as fork,spoon and chair in terms of their use
Obeys 3 commands in succession
Knows right and left hands
Says which is pretty and which is ugly as a series of drawings of faces
Attends first grade
73. Motor changes:
Maxillary central incisors and lateral mandibular incisors erupt
More cautions approaches to new performances
Repeats performance to master them
Jaws begins to expand to accommodate permanent teeth
Mental changes:
Notices the certain items are missing from pictures
Can copy a diamond
Repeats three numbers backward
Develops concept of time; uses clock for practical purposes
Attends second grade
More mechanical in reading; often does not stop at the end of a
sentence; skips words such as “it”, “the” and “he”.
74. Motor effects:
Lateral incisors and mandibular cupids’ erupt
Movement fluid; often graceful and poised
Always on the go; jumps, chases, skips.
Mental effects:
Gives similarities and differences between two things from memory
Counts backward from 20 to 1; understands concept of reversibility
Repeats days of the week and months in order; knows the data
Describes common objects in detail, not merely in their use
Makes change out of a quarter
Attends third grade
Reads more; may plan to wake up early just to read.
75. Motor effects:
Increased smoothness and speed in fine motor control; uses
cursive writing
Dresses self completely
Hard to quiet down after recess
More limber; bones grow faster than ligaments
Mental effects:
Reads classic books; but also enjoys comics
More aware of time; can be relied on to get to school on time
Can grasp concept of parts and whole
Attends fourth grade
Classifies objects by more than one quality
Produces simple paintings and drawings
76. Motor effects:
Posture is more similar to an adult
Reminder of teeth will erupt and tend toward full
development.
Perform tricks on bicycle – races, participate in sports.
Mental effects:
Writes brief stories
Attends fifth grade
Writes occasional short letters to friends or relatives
on own initiative.
77. Motor effects:
Will overcome lordosis
Dresses neatly
Likely to overdo
Mental effects:
Uses telephone for practical purposes
Writes good inspirational stories
Attends sixth grade
Knows right and wrong
78. Motor effects:
Girls:-
Pubescent changes may begin to appear; body lines
soften and round out.
Boys:-
Slow growth in height and rapid weight gain; may
become obese in this period
Mental effects:
Responds to magazine, radio or other advertising
Reads for practical information or own enjoyment
Attends seventh grade
79.
80. Psychosocial development (Erick Erickson)
[Sense of industryVs Inferiority]
Industry- The people who are involved in
providing a service.
Inferiority- A state of feeling less important.
Engage in task in real world
Highly motivate in purposeful activity, Eg: include
them in planning menu. Encourage the child to
identify his potentials.
83. Intellectual development (Jean Piaget)
[Concrete operational stage]
Able to understand, read and write
Developing problem solving abilities
Asks questions
86. Truancy
Fear of darkness (night mares)
School phobia
Stealing
Nail biting,Teeth grinding
Tics
Hurting others
87. Nutrition
Dental hygiene
Exercise
Sex education
Accident prevention
Love and security
Immunization
Parental guidance
88. 13YEARS:
Reproductive organ development:
Male:
Prostate begins functioning
Penis begins to lengthen
Female:
Internal and external organs continue growing
Pubic hair becomes darker, coarser and curlier
Cognitive development:
Adolescent learn to think new ways to understand
complex ideas.
The peer group usually consists of non-romantic
friendship.
89. Reproductive organ development:
Male:
Pubic hair grows
May experience wet dreams, spontaneous erections,
ejaculations.
Growth sprut may begin.
Female:
Underarm hair growth
Onset of menstruation
Pregnancy is now possible
Cognitive development:
Mind has great ability to acquire and utilize knowledge.
Members of the peer group often try to act alike, dress alike,
have secret codes & participate in same activities.
90. Reproductive organ development:
Male:
Rapid growth of the penis, especially enlargement
occurring about 1 year after testis begin to grow.
Testes color deepens.
Female:
Underpants maybe wet at times with a clear mucus; Flow
is often behavior in teen years and will continue naturally
with sexual arousal.
Cognitive development:
Categories thought into usable forms.
Imaginative thinking develops
The peer group expands to include romantic friendships.
91. Reproductive organ development:
Male:
Under arm hair
Mustache begins as a fine hair starting at outside lip edges
about 2 years after pubic hair starts to grow
Voice change begins.
Female:
Most of the growth sprut complete (Ht)
Cognitive development:
They learn selectively
They have better memory
Often feel the need to establish their sexual identity by
becoming comfortable with their body and sexual feelings.
92. Reproductive organ development:
Male:
Average age that sperm matures and cause pregnancy
Majority of the growth sprut complete (Ht)
Female:
Acne
Voice deepens, although not much as males.
Cognitive development:
Problem solving skill gets improved.
Learn to express and receive intimate or sexual advances
93. Reproductive organ development:
Male:
Chest and shoulders fill out
Facial and body hair becomes heavier
Acne
Female:
Full height achieved
Cognitive development:
Able to think in logical way
Able to sound judgment and develop abstract
thinking.
94. Psychosocial (Erick Erickson)
Early- [Identity Vs Role confusion]
Identity - Wrong person
Role confusion- Confusion in their own role
Who am I?
Intense loyalty to peer group
Begins to separate from parents
Later- [IntimacyVs Isolation]
Intimacy – Having close personal relationship with someone.
Isolation – Separate from others.
Develops intimacy with self and persons of both sexes.
101. Risk for parenting and family maladjustment
Risk for intentional and unintentional injuries
Dietary habits
Sexual and emotional abuse
Risk for depression and suicide
Learning and school problem
Hero worship, teenage pregnancy
102. Self care- supervision of health problem
Disease detection and treatment (Self breast
examination andTesticular examination)
Sex education
Prevention of anemia
Accident prevention
Dental hygiene
Trusting and productive relationship
103. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEFECTS:
Anencephaly
Hydrocephalus
Spina bifida
Microcephaly
104. Anencephaly is a lethal anomaly due
to the absence of;
▪ The membrane ossifying bones of the cranial vault and
consequently the skull and scalp.
▪ The cerebral hemispheres, underlying the above
structures.
105. Diagnosis:
Clinical features – Polyhydramnios and abdominal
palpation
Investigations – Raised plasma and amniotic fluid,
α-fetoprotein levels and ultra sound features.
Management:
Elective abortion
Vaginal delivery:There is an increased incidence
of face presentation and shoulder dystocia.
106. Hydrocephalus is an excessive of
cerebrospinal fluid within the ventricles and
the subarachnoid space.
107. This is common among;
Congenital cerebral malformations, Eg:Arnold- Chiari malformation
Congenital fetal infections, Eg:Toxoplasmosis, cytomegalovirus.
Intrauterine-intracranial hemorrhage
Obstruction of aqueduct of Sylvius, which may be due to
Toxoplasmosis
Cytomegalovirus
intracranial tumors
intracerebral hemorrhage.
Chromosomal abnormalities:
triploidy
trisomy 18
trisomy 21
X-linked trait.
109. Spina bifida is a
defect in the spine resulting
from failure of the two halves
of the vertebral arch to fuse.
The posterior ossification
centers of the spine, at the
level of the defect are widely
spaced.The vertebral segment
appears in U-shape.The defect
may by visualized on
longitudinal scanning.There is
restricted motility of lower
limbs.
111. Microcephaly is an abnormally small
head. Diagnosis depends on biometry:
Occipto-frontal diameter(OFD) and BFD are
reduced.The main complication is Mental
retardation.
113. Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)
The ductus arteriosus connects the pulmonary
artery to the descending aorta during fetal life.
PDA results when the ductus fails to close after
birth.
Surgical management:
Thoracotomy
114. Ventricular septal defect (VSD)
Defect in the septum separating the right and left
ventricles.
Most common type of congenital heart disease
accounting for 21% of all cases.
Surgical management:
Pulmonary Artery Banding (PAD)
Cardiopulmonary Bypass
115. Atrial septal defect (ASD)
Atrial septal defect (ASD) is a
congenital heart defectin which blood flows
between the atria (upper chambers) of the
heart. Normally, the atria are separated by a
dividing wall, the interatrial septum.
Surgical management:
Surgical closure
Open heart surgery
116. Atrio ventricular canal (AVC)
The condition occurs when there's a
hole between the heart's chambers and
problems with the valves that regulate blood
flow in the heart. Sometimes called endocardial
cushion defect or atrioventricular
septal defect, atrioventricular canal defect is
present at birth.
Surgical management:
Surgical closure
Open heart surgery
117. Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF)
Tetralogy of fallot is a most common cyanotic
congenital heart disease.This condition is
characterized by the combination of four defects;
▪ Pulmonary stenosis
▪ Ventricular septal defect
▪ Overriding of the aorta
▪ Right ventriculat hypertrophy
Surgical management:
▪ Potts operation
▪ Modified Blalock-Taussig(BT) shunt
▪ Waterson’s operation
▪ Open heart surgery
118. Transposition of Great Arteries:
Transposition of great
arteries(TGA) occurs when the
pulmonary artery originates from the
left ventricle and the aorta originates
from the right ventricle. It is an
embrayologic defect caused by a
straight division of the bulbar trunk
without normal spiraling. It is the most
important cause of cyanosis at birth.
Surgical management:
▪ Beff’s operation
▪ Restelli’s operation
▪ Arterial switch operation
119. Tricuspid Atresia (TA):
Tricuspid atresia is a
form of congenital heart disease
whereby there is a complete absence
of the tricuspid valve.Therefore,
there is an absence of right
atrioventricular connection.This
leads to a hypoplastic (undersized) or
absent right ventricle.
Surgical management:
Homograft
120. Hypoplastic Left heart
syndrome:
Hypoplastic left heart
syndrome (HLHS) is a rare
congenital heart defect in which
the left heart is severely
underdeveloped.
Surgical Correction:
Nor wood correction
Bidirectional Glenn shunt
122. Tracheoesophageal fistula(TEF) is an
abnormal connection between trachea and
oesophagus.This is common among pre
mature and low birth weight babies.
Surgical management:
Gastrostomy
Cervical oesophagostomy
Esophago gastroplasty
123. A hernia in which abdominal organs
protrude into a baby’s umbilical cord.
124. Gastroschesis represents a congenital defect
characterized by a defect in the anterior
abdominal wall through which the abdominal
contents freely protrude.
125. Hirschsprung’s disease is also called as
congenital aganglionic megacolon. It occurs due
to congenital absence of parasympathetic
ganglionic nerve cells, both in muscle layer or
submucosal layer of distal colon and rectum,
which results in extreme dilatation of the colon.
Surgical management:
Swensen’s operation
Duhamel’s operation
Soave’s operation
126. A condition in which the
anterior abdominal wall is sunken and
presents a concave rather than a convex
contour.
Surgical management:
Surgical repair
128. Atelectasis is a collap
se of lung tissue affectin
g part or all of one lung.
This condition prevents
normal oxygen absoptio
n to healthy tissues.
129. Congenital larynge
al stridor is a noisy or
high-pitched sound
with breathing. It is
from an abnormally
formed voice box
(larynx). It is present
at birth (congenital).
130. Cyanotic congenital heart disease
(CCHD) is a condition present at birth. CCHD
causes low levels of oxygen in the blood. A
common symptom is a bluish tint to the skin,
called cyanosis
132. A congenital in males in which the opening
of the urethra is on the underside of the
penis.
Surgical management:
Meatotomy
Chordee correction
Advancement of prepuce
Urethroplasty
133. An epispadias is a rare type of
malformation of the penis in which the
urethra ends in an opening on the upper
aspect of the penis. It can also develop in
females when the urethra develops too far
anteriorly.
Surgical management:
Elongation of urethral strip
Chordee correction
Bladder neck reconstruction
134. Phimosis is a condition in which the foreskin of
the penis cannot be pulled back past
the glans.A balloon-like swelling under the
foreskin may occur with urination.
Surgical management:
Circumcision
135. An undescended testicle (cryptorchidism) is a
testicle that hasn't moved into its proper
position in the bag of skin hanging below the
penis (scrotum) before birth.
Surgical management:
Orchiopexy
Orchidopexy
136. A hydrocele is a buildup
of watery fluid around one
or both testicles. It causes
the scrotum or groin area
to swell. A congenital
hydrocele is one that a
baby is born
with. Hydroceles can also
occur later in life for a
number of reasons.
Surgical management:
Surgical repair
137. An imperforate anus or anorectal
malformations are birth defects in which the
rectum is malformed.
Surigal management:
Anoplasty
138. Virilization is the biological development
of sex differences changes that make a male
body different from a female body.
139. Club foot (Talipes)
Congenital Hip dysplasia
Marfan syndrome
140. Club foot or talipes is a non traumatic
deformity of the foot.The foot is twisted out
of shape or position.The foot maybe
deformed in plantar flexion or dorsi flexion.
The foot maybe abducted and inverted.
Surgical management:
Tenotomy
141. Dysplasia of the hip means the
abnormal development of the proximal femur
and/or acetabulum. Left hip is commonly
affected, but bilateral involvement occurs in
more than 50% of cases. Girls are affected 8
times more than boys.
Surgical management:
Osteotomy
142. Marfan
syndrome (MFS) is a genetic
disorder of the connective
tissue.The degree to which
people are affected varies.
People with Marfan tend to
be tall, and thin, with long
arms, legs, fingers and toes.
They also typically have
flexible joints and scoliosis.
144. Thalassemia is a group of hereditary
hemolytic anemia characterized by reduction in
the synthesis of hemoglobin. It produces
hypochromic anemiadue to defective
hemoglobinization of RBCs, hemolysis and
ineffective erythropoiesis.
Management:
Blood transfusion
Splenectomy
Bone marrow
transplantation
145. Hemophilia is an inherited bleeding
disorder due to deficiency of plasma coagulation
factors. It is primarily found in males but
transmitted by female carriers.
Management:
Replacement therapy
Home treatment
Gene therapy
Orthotics
Synovectomy
146. Hereditary spherocytosis is a condition
that affects red blood cells. People with this
condition typically experience a shortage of
red blood cells (anemia), yellowing of the
eyes and skin (jaundice), and an enlarged
spleen (splenomegaly)
Management:
BloodTransfusion
Spleenectomy
148. Cystic fibrosis(CF) is s fatal autosomal
recessive disease that manifests itself in multiple body
system.The name cystic fibrosis is derived from the
characteristic histological changes in pancreas. It is
also known as mucoviscidosis.This condition leads to
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease(COPD),
frequent lung disease, deficient pancreatic enzymes,
osteoporosis and abnormally high electrolyte
concentration in sweat.
Management:
Genetic counseling
Gene therapy
149. Phenylketonuria (PKU)
is an inborn error of
metabolism that results in
decreased metabolism of
the amino
acidphenylalanine.
Untreated PKU can lead
to intellectual
disability, seizures,
behavioral problems,
and mental disorders.
151. Deficiency or low circulating
level of thyroid hormones result
in hypothyroidism. Congenital
hypothyroidism is also called as
cretinism.The harmone causes
decreased metabolism, growth
retardation and delayed physical
maturation.
Management:
Replacement therapy with synthetic
levothyroxine
152. Hypopituitarism is the decreased (hypo)
secretion of one or more of the
eight hormones normally produced by
the pituitary gland at the base of the brain.
153. Goiter is the
enlargement of thyroid
gland.When the lateral
lobe of thyroid gland
becomes larger than the
terminal phalanx of child’s
thumb, then it is diagnosed
as thromegaly. Goiter may
develop due to high
production ofTSH in
response to decreased
thyroxine level.
155. Down’s syndrome is
the most common
chromosomal disorder
and most common
identifiable cause of
mental retardation. It is
a condition associated
with variety of
congenital anomalies.
Management:
No specific treatment
Parental counseling
156. Patau syndrome is
a syndrome caused by
a chromosomal abnormality, in
which some or all of the cells of
the body contain extra genetic
material from chromosome 13.
The extra genetic material
disrupts normal development,
causing multiple and complex
organ defects.
Management:
No specific treatment
Parental counseling
158. The failure of the maxillary process to fuse
with nasal elevations on frontal prominence is
called cleft lip.The failure of masses of lateral
palatine process to meet and fuse together is
called cleft palate.
Surgicalmanagement:
Palatoplasty (Cleft Palate)
Surgical repair of lip (Cleft Lip)