Glycolysis
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Short explanation about Glycolysis, the process of glucose break down. the term 'gluco' refers to glucose, while 'lysis' refers to breakdown
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Citric Acid Cycle
The citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) occurs in the mitochondria and involves a series of reactions that oxidize acetyl groups from acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, releasing carbon dioxide and reducing equivalents (NADH and FADH2) that are used to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The TCA cycle produces two GTP/ATP molecules per acetyl-CoA molecule oxidized and feeds reduced electron carriers into the electron transport chain to produce additional ATP. It is also an amphibolic pathway that generates precursors for various biosynthetic pathways.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate. It occurs in 10 steps with 2 ATP molecules invested at the start and a net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH. It is an important pathway as it is common to both aerobic and anaerobic respiration and generates precursors for biosynthesis. Key regulatory enzymes include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase which are inhibited when energy levels are high.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a 10 step pathway that converts glucose into two pyruvate molecules and produces a net yield of two ATP molecules. It involves an energy-investment phase where ATP is used to phosphorylate intermediates and an energy-generation phase where ATP is produced from the oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Glycolysis is the first step in both aerobic cellular respiration and anaerobic fermentation.
GLYCOGENOLYSIS & REGULATION OF GLYCOGEN METABOLISM
- Glycogenolysis is the degradation of glycogen stores in the liver and muscle into glucose. It is carried out by independent cytosolic enzymes.
- Glycogen phosphorylase breaks alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds in glycogen, producing glucose-1-phosphate. A debranching enzyme then breaks alpha-1,6 bonds to fully degrade glycogen.
- Glucose-1-phosphate is converted to glucose-6-phosphate which can be further converted to glucose by glucose-6-phosphatase in the liver, releasing it into circulation. Muscle lacks this enzyme and uses its glucose-6-phosphate in glycolysis.
- Glycogen metabolism is regulated by hormones like
Glycogenolysis
Glycogen metabolism involves the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate through glycogenolysis. Glycogenolysis occurs in three steps: 1) glycogen phosphorylase cleaves glucose from glycogen, 2) transferase and alpha-1,6-glucosidase remodel glycogen to allow further degradation, and 3) phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. In liver, glucose-6-phosphatase converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose for blood glucose regulation. In muscle, glucose-6-phosphate enters glycolysis for rapid energy production.
Gluconeogenesis - The Pathway and Regulation
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It occurs mainly during periods of fasting and involves converting substrates like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids into glucose. The pathway overcomes three thermodynamic barriers of glycolysis through smaller successive steps. Regulation occurs through allosteric control of enzymes, hormonal control of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate levels, and transcriptional control of key genes like PEPCK and FOXO1. Together these mechanisms help direct carbon fluxes towards gluconeogenesis or glycolysis based on energy demands.
Glycolysis ppt
This document provides information about glycolysis, including:
1) Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing 2 ATP and 2 NADH. There are 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions in two stages.
2) Key regulatory enzymes include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase which control the flux of glycolysis.
3) Under anaerobic conditions, NADH is regenerated through lactic acid or ethanol fermentation to allow glycolysis to continue.
URONIC ACID PATHWAY
This document summarizes the glucuronic acid pathway, an alternative oxidative pathway for glucose metabolism. It provides UDP-glucuronic acid, which is used to conjugate bilirubin, steroids, and drugs to make them more water soluble and excretable. The pathway also synthesizes glycosaminoglycans and is involved in vitamin C synthesis in many animals. Key steps include the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to UDP-glucuronate and the subsequent production of L-gulonate, a precursor for ascorbic acid synthesis. Certain genetic disorders can cause excess excretion of metabolites from this pathway such as L-xylulose in essential pentosuria.
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Citric Acid Cycle
The citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) occurs in the mitochondria and involves a series of reactions that oxidize acetyl groups from acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, releasing carbon dioxide and reducing equivalents (NADH and FADH2) that are used to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The TCA cycle produces two GTP/ATP molecules per acetyl-CoA molecule oxidized and feeds reduced electron carriers into the electron transport chain to produce additional ATP. It is also an amphibolic pathway that generates precursors for various biosynthetic pathways.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate. It occurs in 10 steps with 2 ATP molecules invested at the start and a net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH. It is an important pathway as it is common to both aerobic and anaerobic respiration and generates precursors for biosynthesis. Key regulatory enzymes include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase which are inhibited when energy levels are high.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a 10 step pathway that converts glucose into two pyruvate molecules and produces a net yield of two ATP molecules. It involves an energy-investment phase where ATP is used to phosphorylate intermediates and an energy-generation phase where ATP is produced from the oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Glycolysis is the first step in both aerobic cellular respiration and anaerobic fermentation.
GLYCOGENOLYSIS & REGULATION OF GLYCOGEN METABOLISM
- Glycogenolysis is the degradation of glycogen stores in the liver and muscle into glucose. It is carried out by independent cytosolic enzymes.
- Glycogen phosphorylase breaks alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds in glycogen, producing glucose-1-phosphate. A debranching enzyme then breaks alpha-1,6 bonds to fully degrade glycogen.
- Glucose-1-phosphate is converted to glucose-6-phosphate which can be further converted to glucose by glucose-6-phosphatase in the liver, releasing it into circulation. Muscle lacks this enzyme and uses its glucose-6-phosphate in glycolysis.
- Glycogen metabolism is regulated by hormones like
Glycogenolysis
Glycogen metabolism involves the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate through glycogenolysis. Glycogenolysis occurs in three steps: 1) glycogen phosphorylase cleaves glucose from glycogen, 2) transferase and alpha-1,6-glucosidase remodel glycogen to allow further degradation, and 3) phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. In liver, glucose-6-phosphatase converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose for blood glucose regulation. In muscle, glucose-6-phosphate enters glycolysis for rapid energy production.
Gluconeogenesis - The Pathway and Regulation
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It occurs mainly during periods of fasting and involves converting substrates like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids into glucose. The pathway overcomes three thermodynamic barriers of glycolysis through smaller successive steps. Regulation occurs through allosteric control of enzymes, hormonal control of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate levels, and transcriptional control of key genes like PEPCK and FOXO1. Together these mechanisms help direct carbon fluxes towards gluconeogenesis or glycolysis based on energy demands.
Glycolysis ppt
This document provides information about glycolysis, including:
1) Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing 2 ATP and 2 NADH. There are 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions in two stages.
2) Key regulatory enzymes include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase which control the flux of glycolysis.
3) Under anaerobic conditions, NADH is regenerated through lactic acid or ethanol fermentation to allow glycolysis to continue.
URONIC ACID PATHWAY
This document summarizes the glucuronic acid pathway, an alternative oxidative pathway for glucose metabolism. It provides UDP-glucuronic acid, which is used to conjugate bilirubin, steroids, and drugs to make them more water soluble and excretable. The pathway also synthesizes glycosaminoglycans and is involved in vitamin C synthesis in many animals. Key steps include the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to UDP-glucuronate and the subsequent production of L-gulonate, a precursor for ascorbic acid synthesis. Certain genetic disorders can cause excess excretion of metabolites from this pathway such as L-xylulose in essential pentosuria.
Glycogen metabolism
Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in animals, analogous to starch in plants. Glycogen is synthesized from glucose through glycogenesis, which occurs predominantly in the liver and muscles, and stored glycogen is broken down to glucose through glycogenolysis. Glycogenesis is regulated by hormones like insulin, epinephrine, and glucagon that control intracellular cAMP levels and the phosphorylation state of glycogen synthase to convert it between its active and inactive forms.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP. It occurs in two stages - the preparatory stage converts glucose to two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate using two ATP molecules, and the payoff stage converts these into two pyruvate molecules while generating four ATP molecules. Glycolysis is an important energy source when oxygen is limited, allowing extraction of energy from glucose without oxygen.
Metabolic pathways and energy production
Metabolic pathways and energy production involve catabolic reactions that break down molecules and provide energy in the form of ATP. Glycolysis is the process by which glucose is converted to pyruvate through a series of reactions, generating a small amount of ATP. In aerobic conditions, pyruvate undergoes further reactions to form acetyl-CoA and enters the citric acid cycle, while in anaerobic conditions it is reduced to lactate. Coenzymes such as NAD+ and FAD help transfer hydrogen atoms between reactions and link metabolic pathways.
Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis is controlled by enzymes and hormones. Key enzymes in glycolysis like phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase are regulated by allosteric effectors like ATP, AMP, and citrate to control the pathway. The opposing pathway of gluconeogenesis is regulated by enzymes like fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase and pyruvate carboxylase which have opposite regulation to their glycolytic counterparts. Hormones like insulin promote glycolysis while glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis to regulate blood glucose levels.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a 10 step process that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH. It occurs in the cytoplasm and is the first major step in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. The 10 steps involve phosphorylation of glucose, isomerization, splitting of sugars, formation of ATP and NADH, and final production of pyruvate from phosphoenolpyruvate. Glycolysis functions to break down glucose into energy molecules ATP and NADH that can be used by cells, and produces pyruvate that can enter the citric acid cycle during aerobic respiration.
Glycolysis
Complete Glycolysis in short or easy way to understand
Glycolysis is derived from the Greek words glykys = sweet and lysis = splitting.
This pathway was described by EMBDEN,MEYERHOFF and PARNAS. Hence, it is also called EMP PATHWAY.
glycolysis is the process in which 1 molecule of glucose broken down to form 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.thus, 4 ATP molecules are synthesised and 2 ATP molecules are used during glycolysis. it occur in cytoplasm of animal cells,plant cell.
Tca cycle b.pharm
The document summarizes the three stages of catabolism:
1. Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA in the mitochondria by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. This is the committed step to the citric acid cycle.
2. The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex contains three enzymes and requires five cofactors including thiamine pyrophosphate and Coenzyme A.
3. Acetyl-CoA then enters the citric acid cycle, which occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and fully oxidizes acetyl-CoA, producing carbon dioxide and reducing equivalents like NADH and FADH2.
Citric acid cycle
The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle, is the final pathway for the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. It occurs in the mitochondria and plays a central role in energy production, gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis, and amino acid conversion. Defects in the enzymes of the TCA cycle have been linked to severe neurological diseases due to impaired ATP production. The cycle generates ATP, NADH, FADH2, and GTP through a series of 8 reactions that oxidize acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP; also called the phosphogluconate pathway and the hexose monophosphate shunt) is a process that breaks down glucose-6-phosphate into NADPH and pentoses (5-carbon sugars) for use in downstream biological processes. There are two distinct phases in the pathway: the oxidative phase and the non-oxidative phase.
Metabolism of carbohydrates
1. Glycolysis converts glucose into pyruvate and generates ATP through 10 steps. Key steps include phosphorylation of glucose by hexokinase, generation of NADH by glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and production of ATP by phosphoglycerate kinase and pyruvate kinase.
2. Pyruvate has three main fates after glycolysis: it can be reduced to lactate, converted to ethanol, or enter the citric acid cycle after carboxylation to oxaloacetate.
3. Gluconeogenesis uses similar pathways as glycolysis but in the reverse direction to generate glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors through the action of four key enzymes that bypass irre
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Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources through a complex series of metabolic pathways. It occurs primarily in the liver and kidney cytosol and produces approximately 1 kg of glucose per day, which is essential for brain function and as an energy source for muscles. The major precursors for gluconeogenesis are lactate, pyruvate, amino acids, glycerol, and propionate derived from the breakdown of proteins, fats, and certain metabolites. The pathways involved closely mirror glycolysis except for a few irreversible steps that are bypassed by alternative enzyme-catalyzed reactions in order to synthesize glucose from these precursors.
Pentose phosphate pathway
The document summarizes the pentose phosphate pathway. It consists of an oxidative phase and a non-oxidative phase. The oxidative phase generates NADPH and ribulose 5-phosphate through oxidation reactions. The non-oxidative phase converts ribulose 5-phosphate into other 5-carbon sugars, regenerating glucose 6-phosphate while producing ribose 5-phosphate. The pathway provides reducing power in the form of NADPH for biosynthesis and maintains levels of the antioxidant glutathione.
Glycogen metabolism
This document summarizes glycogen metabolism. Glycogen is the storage form of glucose found primarily in the liver and muscles. Glycogenesis is the synthesis of glycogen from glucose using enzymes like glycogen synthase. Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, carried out by phosphorylase and debranching enzymes. The glucose is then converted to glucose-6-phosphate and can re-enter circulation from the liver or be used locally by tissues in glycolysis. Glycogen thus serves to maintain blood glucose levels and acts as a fuel reserve for muscles.
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This document summarizes carbohydrate metabolism, including the absorption of monosaccharides, fate of absorbed sugars, pathways for glucose utilization, oxidation of glucose through glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, and glycogen metabolism. Key points include: monosaccharides are absorbed via simple diffusion, facilitated transport, or active transport; glucose is utilized through oxidation, storage, or conversion to other compounds; glycolysis occurs via two phases to generate ATP or lactate; the Krebs cycle further oxidizes pyruvate to generate more ATP; glycogen is synthesized from and broken down back to glucose to provide energy.
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This document provides an overview of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. It discusses the key reactions and enzymes involved in glycolysis, which converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. Three reactions of glycolysis are irreversible. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate can be reduced to lactate. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of almost every living cell and was the first metabolic pathway to be studied in detail. Phosphorylation of intermediates traps molecules in the cell and provides energy for chemical reactions. The document also compares the enzymes hexokinase and glucokinase, and examines regulatory points in glycolysis.
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This document discusses the electron transport chain (ETC) and its components. It notes that the ETC is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane and utilizes electrons derived from nutrients to generate ATP through a series of oxidation-reduction reactions. It describes the five complexes of the ETC (Complexes I-IV which transport electrons and Complex V which synthesizes ATP) as well as the mobile carriers involved in electron transport, including NADH, Coenzyme Q, cytochrome c, and oxygen. The ETC functions to transfer electrons from substrates to oxygen and harness the energy to produce ATP, making mitochondria the powerhouse of the cell.
Uronic acid pathway
The uronic acid pathway, also known as the glucoronic acid pathway, is an alternative oxidative pathway for glucose that results in the synthesis of glucoronic acid, UDP-glucose, pentoses, and ascorbic acid in lower animals. The pathway includes reactions like those catalyzed by phosphoglucomutase and UDP-glucose dehydrogenase. Administration of drugs such as barbitol and chlorobutanol increases the uronic acid pathway and synthesis of glucoronate from glucose, which is required for detoxification of these drugs. Essential pentosuria is a rare genetic disorder caused by a deficiency of xylitol dehydrogenase, preventing the conversion of L-xylulose to xylitol and
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Carbohydrate metabolism involves the different biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms.
Glycogenesis
1. Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis, the storage form of carbohydrates in animals and plants.
2. Glycogen is synthesized from glucose-1-phosphate through the addition of glucose units via alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds and branching via alpha-1,6 bonds, forming a branched polymer structure.
3. Glycogenesis occurs primarily in the liver and muscles, with liver glycogen functioning to regulate blood glucose levels between meals through glycogenolysis and export of glucose, while muscle glycogen provides glucose for local glycolysis.
Respiration in Plants
Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of glucose and other food molecules within cells to extract energy to fuel life processes through oxidation reactions. Glucose undergoes glycolysis to form pyruvate, which is further oxidized in the mitochondria through the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain to generate large amounts of ATP, the energy currency of cells. Aerobic respiration completely oxidizes glucose to carbon dioxide and water, trapping energy from electron carriers in ATP. Fermentation pathways produce little ATP and do not fully oxidize glucose.
Composition and metabolism of carbohydrates by Dr. Pallavi Pathania
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and blood sugar regulation. It explains that glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. Gluconeogenesis converts non-carbohydrates into glucose when glycogen stores are depleted. The Cori cycle involves the liver converting lactate from muscles back into glucose. The TCA cycle further breaks down pyruvate from glycolysis to generate more ATP. Glycogenolysis breaks down glycogen into glucose as needed. The pentose phosphate pathway generates NADPH and pentoses from glucose-6-phosphate. Hormones like insulin regulate blood sugar levels.
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Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in animals, analogous to starch in plants. Glycogen is synthesized from glucose through glycogenesis, which occurs predominantly in the liver and muscles, and stored glycogen is broken down to glucose through glycogenolysis. Glycogenesis is regulated by hormones like insulin, epinephrine, and glucagon that control intracellular cAMP levels and the phosphorylation state of glycogen synthase to convert it between its active and inactive forms.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP. It occurs in two stages - the preparatory stage converts glucose to two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate using two ATP molecules, and the payoff stage converts these into two pyruvate molecules while generating four ATP molecules. Glycolysis is an important energy source when oxygen is limited, allowing extraction of energy from glucose without oxygen.
Metabolic pathways and energy production
Metabolic pathways and energy production involve catabolic reactions that break down molecules and provide energy in the form of ATP. Glycolysis is the process by which glucose is converted to pyruvate through a series of reactions, generating a small amount of ATP. In aerobic conditions, pyruvate undergoes further reactions to form acetyl-CoA and enters the citric acid cycle, while in anaerobic conditions it is reduced to lactate. Coenzymes such as NAD+ and FAD help transfer hydrogen atoms between reactions and link metabolic pathways.
Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis is controlled by enzymes and hormones. Key enzymes in glycolysis like phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase are regulated by allosteric effectors like ATP, AMP, and citrate to control the pathway. The opposing pathway of gluconeogenesis is regulated by enzymes like fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase and pyruvate carboxylase which have opposite regulation to their glycolytic counterparts. Hormones like insulin promote glycolysis while glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis to regulate blood glucose levels.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a 10 step process that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH. It occurs in the cytoplasm and is the first major step in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. The 10 steps involve phosphorylation of glucose, isomerization, splitting of sugars, formation of ATP and NADH, and final production of pyruvate from phosphoenolpyruvate. Glycolysis functions to break down glucose into energy molecules ATP and NADH that can be used by cells, and produces pyruvate that can enter the citric acid cycle during aerobic respiration.
Glycolysis
Complete Glycolysis in short or easy way to understand
Glycolysis is derived from the Greek words glykys = sweet and lysis = splitting.
This pathway was described by EMBDEN,MEYERHOFF and PARNAS. Hence, it is also called EMP PATHWAY.
glycolysis is the process in which 1 molecule of glucose broken down to form 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.thus, 4 ATP molecules are synthesised and 2 ATP molecules are used during glycolysis. it occur in cytoplasm of animal cells,plant cell.
Tca cycle b.pharm
The document summarizes the three stages of catabolism:
1. Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA in the mitochondria by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. This is the committed step to the citric acid cycle.
2. The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex contains three enzymes and requires five cofactors including thiamine pyrophosphate and Coenzyme A.
3. Acetyl-CoA then enters the citric acid cycle, which occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and fully oxidizes acetyl-CoA, producing carbon dioxide and reducing equivalents like NADH and FADH2.
Citric acid cycle
The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle, is the final pathway for the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. It occurs in the mitochondria and plays a central role in energy production, gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis, and amino acid conversion. Defects in the enzymes of the TCA cycle have been linked to severe neurological diseases due to impaired ATP production. The cycle generates ATP, NADH, FADH2, and GTP through a series of 8 reactions that oxidize acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP; also called the phosphogluconate pathway and the hexose monophosphate shunt) is a process that breaks down glucose-6-phosphate into NADPH and pentoses (5-carbon sugars) for use in downstream biological processes. There are two distinct phases in the pathway: the oxidative phase and the non-oxidative phase.
Metabolism of carbohydrates
1. Glycolysis converts glucose into pyruvate and generates ATP through 10 steps. Key steps include phosphorylation of glucose by hexokinase, generation of NADH by glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and production of ATP by phosphoglycerate kinase and pyruvate kinase.
2. Pyruvate has three main fates after glycolysis: it can be reduced to lactate, converted to ethanol, or enter the citric acid cycle after carboxylation to oxaloacetate.
3. Gluconeogenesis uses similar pathways as glycolysis but in the reverse direction to generate glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors through the action of four key enzymes that bypass irre
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Pentose phosphate pathway
The document summarizes the pentose phosphate pathway. It consists of an oxidative phase and a non-oxidative phase. The oxidative phase generates NADPH and ribulose 5-phosphate through oxidation reactions. The non-oxidative phase converts ribulose 5-phosphate into other 5-carbon sugars, regenerating glucose 6-phosphate while producing ribose 5-phosphate. The pathway provides reducing power in the form of NADPH for biosynthesis and maintains levels of the antioxidant glutathione.
Glycogen metabolism
This document summarizes glycogen metabolism. Glycogen is the storage form of glucose found primarily in the liver and muscles. Glycogenesis is the synthesis of glycogen from glucose using enzymes like glycogen synthase. Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, carried out by phosphorylase and debranching enzymes. The glucose is then converted to glucose-6-phosphate and can re-enter circulation from the liver or be used locally by tissues in glycolysis. Glycogen thus serves to maintain blood glucose levels and acts as a fuel reserve for muscles.
Carbohydrate Metabolism - Biochemistry
This document summarizes carbohydrate metabolism, including the absorption of monosaccharides, fate of absorbed sugars, pathways for glucose utilization, oxidation of glucose through glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, and glycogen metabolism. Key points include: monosaccharides are absorbed via simple diffusion, facilitated transport, or active transport; glucose is utilized through oxidation, storage, or conversion to other compounds; glycolysis occurs via two phases to generate ATP or lactate; the Krebs cycle further oxidizes pyruvate to generate more ATP; glycogen is synthesized from and broken down back to glucose to provide energy.
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This document provides an overview of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. It discusses the key reactions and enzymes involved in glycolysis, which converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. Three reactions of glycolysis are irreversible. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate can be reduced to lactate. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of almost every living cell and was the first metabolic pathway to be studied in detail. Phosphorylation of intermediates traps molecules in the cell and provides energy for chemical reactions. The document also compares the enzymes hexokinase and glucokinase, and examines regulatory points in glycolysis.
Electron transport chain
This document discusses the electron transport chain (ETC) and its components. It notes that the ETC is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane and utilizes electrons derived from nutrients to generate ATP through a series of oxidation-reduction reactions. It describes the five complexes of the ETC (Complexes I-IV which transport electrons and Complex V which synthesizes ATP) as well as the mobile carriers involved in electron transport, including NADH, Coenzyme Q, cytochrome c, and oxygen. The ETC functions to transfer electrons from substrates to oxygen and harness the energy to produce ATP, making mitochondria the powerhouse of the cell.
Uronic acid pathway
The uronic acid pathway, also known as the glucoronic acid pathway, is an alternative oxidative pathway for glucose that results in the synthesis of glucoronic acid, UDP-glucose, pentoses, and ascorbic acid in lower animals. The pathway includes reactions like those catalyzed by phosphoglucomutase and UDP-glucose dehydrogenase. Administration of drugs such as barbitol and chlorobutanol increases the uronic acid pathway and synthesis of glucoronate from glucose, which is required for detoxification of these drugs. Essential pentosuria is a rare genetic disorder caused by a deficiency of xylitol dehydrogenase, preventing the conversion of L-xylulose to xylitol and
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Carbohydrate metabolism involves the different biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms.
Glycogenesis
1. Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis, the storage form of carbohydrates in animals and plants.
2. Glycogen is synthesized from glucose-1-phosphate through the addition of glucose units via alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds and branching via alpha-1,6 bonds, forming a branched polymer structure.
3. Glycogenesis occurs primarily in the liver and muscles, with liver glycogen functioning to regulate blood glucose levels between meals through glycogenolysis and export of glucose, while muscle glycogen provides glucose for local glycolysis.
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Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of glucose and other food molecules within cells to extract energy to fuel life processes through oxidation reactions. Glucose undergoes glycolysis to form pyruvate, which is further oxidized in the mitochondria through the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain to generate large amounts of ATP, the energy currency of cells. Aerobic respiration completely oxidizes glucose to carbon dioxide and water, trapping energy from electron carriers in ATP. Fermentation pathways produce little ATP and do not fully oxidize glucose.
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1. Metabolism involves the breakdown and synthesis of molecules, including catabolism which breaks down molecules to release energy and anabolism which uses energy to synthesize molecules.
2. Glycolysis is a series of 10 steps where glucose is broken down into two pyruvate molecules, producing energy in the form of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
3. Through a series of phosphorylation, isomerization, and oxidation reactions, one glucose molecule yields two pyruvate molecules, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH during glycolysis, for a total of 7 ATP produced.
METABIOLISM enygy 4_862710a7c2c20fb58a6fc23bdbfe0ada.pdf
Metabolism refers to the sum of all chemical reactions in the body's cells. It allows the generation of energy from nutrients and the production of biological compounds. Metabolic pathways include glycolysis, the TCA cycle, and the electron transport chain. Metabolism takes place within cells, with the mitochondria being the main site of aerobic metabolism. The liver plays a key role in metabolizing nutrients from food. Metabolic reactions are regulated by enzymes and hormones. ATP is the main energy currency of cells and is produced through both anaerobic and aerobic metabolism. Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and alcohol can all be metabolized to produce energy.
Carbohydrate energetics
Carbohydrate metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms. The most important carbohydrate is glucose, a simple sugar (monosaccharide) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms.
Chapter14 160419080639
Glycolysis is a central pathway for glucose catabolism that converts glucose into pyruvate through a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. It occurs in most organisms and tissues as a source of energy. The first phase activates glucose through phosphorylation, while the second phase generates ATP and NADH through substrate-level phosphorylation and hydride transfer. Pyruvate produced can then undergo aerobic or anaerobic fates including fermentation to regenerate NAD+ under anaerobic conditions.
Chapter 14 - Glucose utilization and biosynthesis - Biochemistry
Glycolysis is a central pathway for glucose catabolism that converts glucose into pyruvate through a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. It occurs in most organisms and tissues as a source of energy. The first phase activates glucose through phosphorylation, while the second phase generates ATP and NADH through substrate-level phosphorylation and hydride transfer. Pyruvate produced can then undergo aerobic or anaerobic fates including fermentation to regenerate NAD+ under anaerobic conditions.
Respiration in plants
The document summarizes various aspects of cellular respiration in plants. It discusses cellular respiration, where glucose and other molecules are broken down to release energy stored as ATP. It also describes the different pathways of respiration - glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport system. The final stages of aerobic and anaerobic respiration are compared, noting that aerobic respiration fully breaks down glucose to carbon dioxide and water, yielding more ATP. The roles of fermentation, the fate of pyruvic acid, and the amphibolic nature of respiration are also summarized.
Glycolysis & gluconeogenesis
intro of glycolysis there cycle and step - function-significance-defination-glucogenesis cycle-significance of gluconeogenesis-function of gluconeogenesis-conclusion
cellular respiratio.ppt
This document summarizes cellular respiration, which breaks down glucose and other food sources to release energy. There are two main types of respiration: anaerobic, which does not require oxygen, and aerobic, which does. Anaerobic respiration includes glycolysis and fermentation in the cytoplasm and produces 2 ATP. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen and occurs in mitochondria through multiple processes, producing much more ATP. The energy released is captured in ATP, which cells use like a currency to power various processes.
cellular respiratio.ppt
This document summarizes cellular respiration, which breaks down glucose and other food sources to release energy. There are two main types: anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen, while aerobic respiration does. Anaerobic processes like glycolysis and fermentation occur in the cytoplasm and produce a small amount of ATP. Aerobic processes take place in the mitochondria and fully break down pyruvate from glycolysis into CO2, producing much more ATP with oxygen as the final electron acceptor. The ATP produced is the cell's energy currency, and is constantly broken down and remade through metabolic pathways to power cellular work.
biochemistry unit-1.pptx By Drx. Toni Blair
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules on Earth. They have the general formula Cx(H2O)y and include sugars such as glucose. Carbohydrate metabolism involves both catabolic pathways like glycolysis that break down glucose, as well as anabolic pathways that build molecules. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate in the cytoplasm, releasing energy in the form of ATP. Anaerobic glycolysis occurs without oxygen and produces lactate, while aerobic glycolysis is coupled to the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain. The pentose phosphate pathway generates pentoses like ribose-5-phosphate that are essential for nucleic acid synthesis. G6PD deficiency results in inadequate G6PD enzyme levels
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Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
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3:国家专业人才认证中心颁发入库证书
4:这个认证书并且可以归档倒地方
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Glycolysis
- 1. GLYCOLYSIS
- 2. INTRODUCTION • Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid. • The first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism. • Series of reactions that reconstitute the first phase of most carbohydrate catabolism, where the catabolism means the breaking down of larger molecules into smaller ones.
- 3. DEFINITION It is a part of cellular respiration of carbohydrate degradation as simple sugar, glucose, to yield ATP (energy-containing molecules called ATP) as an energy source by way of phosphate derivatives with the production of pyruvic or lactic acid and energy stored in high-energy phosphate bonds of ATP.
- 4. PURPOSE • As first step of cellular respiration • The production of ATP allows the cell to generate at least a small amount of energy even without oxygen • Glycolysis itself releases two molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose.
- 5. FUNCTION To break down glucose: To form NADH and ATP as source of energy to cells. As a part of aerobic respiration pyruvate is made available for the citric acid cycle. The process results in intermediate compounds, which may be used at various steps for other cellular purposes.
- 6. IMPORTANCE • Glucose is the source of almost all energy used as fuel for cells and tissues in the body • Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism. • Glycolysis is also important because the metabolism of glucose produces useful intermediates for other metabolic pathways, such as the synthesis of amino acids or fatty acids.
- 7. PROCESS • Glycolysis is the metabolic process that serves as the foundation for both aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration. • In glycolysis, glucose is converted into pyruvate. • Glucose is a six-membered ring molecule found in the blood and is usually a result of the breakdown of carbohydrates into sugars.
- 8. • It enters cells through specific transporter proteins that move it from outside the cell into the cell’s cytosol. • All of the glycolytic enzymes are found in the cytosol. • There are 10 steps in the series of chemical reactions known as glycolysis. In each step, the carbon molecules in the glucose rearrange into a lower-energy structure. • The last step is the energy generating step, where two molecules of ADP convert into higher-energy ATP molecules.