Global economic issues are shaped by increasing globalization and interdependence among nations. There have been three major waves of globalization since 1870. The current wave began in the 1980s and is driven by developing countries like China and India entering global markets and attracting foreign investment. It has connected national economies more closely through rising trade, investment, and financial flows. However, some developing countries have become marginalized and have not benefited from these economic linkages.

1. GLOBAL ECONOMIC ISSUES
Topic 1: The Changing Global Environment
By: MADDY.KALEEM

2. AGENDA
 Economic Interdependence
 What is Globalization?
 Globalization of Economic Activity
 Waves of Globalization
 First Wave 1870-1914
 Second Wave 1945-1980
 Latest Wave
By: MADDY.KALEEM

3.  In today’s world no nation exists in isolation.
 All aspects of a nation’s economy___ its industries,
service sectors, levels of income and employment
and living standards___ are linked to the
economies of its trading partners.
 This linkage takes the form of international
movements of goods and services, labor, business
enterprise, investment funds, and technology.
 Indeed, national economic polices cannot be
formulated without evaluating their probable
impacts on the economies of other countries.
ECONOMIC INTERDEPENDENCE
By: MADDY.KALEEM

4.  The high degree of economic interdependence
among today’s economies reflects the historical
evolution of the world’s economic and political
order.
 At the end of World War-2, the U.S. was
economically and politically the most powerful
nation in the world, a situation expressed in saying,
 “When the United Sates sneezes, the economies of
other nations catch a cold.”
 But with the passage of time, the U.S. economy has
become increasingly integrated into the economic
activities of foreign countries.
ECONOMIC INTERDEPENDENCE
By: MADDY.KALEEM

5.  For example:
 The formation in 1950s of European Community
(now known as the European Union),
 The rising importance in 1960s of multinational
corporations,
 The market power in the 1970s enjoyed by the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC),
 and the creation of the Euro at the turn of 21st
century
 have all resulted in the evolution of the world
community into a complicated system based on
growing interdependence among nations.
ECONOMIC INTERDEPENDENCE
By: MADDY.KALEEM

6.  The interdependence among nations have forced
economic communities towards international
cooperation.
 Conferences devoted to global economic issues
have explored the avenues through which
cooperation could be fostered between industrial
and developing nations.
 The efforts of developing nations to reap larger
gains form international trade and to participate fully
in international institutions have been hastened by
the impact of the global recession, industrial
inflation, and the burdens of high-priced energy.
ECONOMIC INTERDEPENDENCE
By: MADDY.KALEEM

7.  Over the past 50 years, the world’s market economies
have become increasingly interdependent.
 Exports and Imports as a share of national output have
risen for most industrial nations, while foreign
investment and international lending have expanded.
 This closer linkage of economies can be mutually
advantageous for trading nations.
 Producers can take advantage of specialization and
efficiencies of large scale production.
 A nation an consume a wider variety of products at a
cost less than that which could be achieved in the
absence of trade.
ECONOMIC INTERDEPENDENCE
By: MADDY.KALEEM

8.  Despite these advantages, demands have grown
for protection against imports.
 Protectionist pressures have been strongest during
periods of rising unemployment caused y economic
recession.
 Moreover, developing nations often maintain that
the so-called liberalized trading system called for by
industrial nations serves to keep the developing
nations in poverty.
ECONOMIC INTERDEPENDENCE
By: MADDY.KALEEM

9. WHAT IS GLOBALIZATION?
 It is the process of greater interdependence among
countries and their citizens.
 It consists of the increased interaction of product
and resource market across nations via trade,
immigration, and foreign investment__ that is via
international flow of goods and services, of people
and of investments in equipment, factories, stocks,
and bonds.
 It also includes non-economic elements such as
culture and environment.
 So, globalization is political, technological, and
cultural, as well as economic.
By: MADDY.KALEEM

10.  In terms of people’s daily lives, globalization meant
that the residents of one country are more likely
now than they were 50 years ago to:
 Consume the products of another country
 To invest in another country
 To earn income from other countries
 To communicate to people in other countries
 To visit other countries
 To know they are being affected by economic
developments in other countries
 And to know about developments in other
countries.
GLOBALIZATION OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
By: MADDY.KALEEM

11. WAVES OF GLOBALIZATION
First wave of Globalization: 1870-1914
 The first wave of global interdependence was sparked
by decrease in tariff barriers and new technologies that
resulted in declining transportation costs, such as the
shift from sail to steamships and the advent of railways.
 The main agent that drove this process was how much
muscle, horsepower, wind power, or later on, steam
power a country had and how creatively it could deploy
that power.
 The main drivers were European and American
businesses and individuals, who benefited the most
form it.
 Export as a share of world income nearly doubled and
per capita income risen from 0.5 annually to 1.3 percent.
By: MADDY.KALEEM

12.  This wave of globalization was brought to an end by
World war 1.
 Also, during the great depression of 1930s,
governments responded by practicing
protectionism.
 A futile attempt to enact tariffs on imports to shift
demand into their domestic markets, thus
promoting sales for domestic companies and jobs
for domestic workers.
 For the world economy, increasing protectionism
caused exports to fall, thereby undoing 80 years of
technological progress.
WAVES OF GLOBALIZATION
By: MADDY.KALEEM

13. Second wave of Globalization: 1945-1980
 The end of World War 2 forced nations to retreat into
nationalism, thus there was a need for another wave of
globalization.
 Falling transportation costs continued to foster
increased trade.
 Also, nations persuaded governments to cooperate to
decrease previously established trade barriers.
 By 1980, trade between developed nations in
manufactured goods had been largely free of barriers.
 But, for developing nations, barriers were only
eliminated for those agricultural products that did not
compete with agriculture industries of developed
nations.
WAVES OF GLOBALIZATION
By: MADDY.KALEEM

14.  This resulted in higher incomes for developed countries
relative to the rest.
 A new kind of trade was introduced: rich countries
specialization in manufacturing niches that gained
productivity through agglomeration economies.
 Increasingly, firms were clustered together, some
clusters produced the same product, and others were
connected by vertical linkages.
 For example, Japanese auto companies became
famous for insisting that their parts manufacturers locate
within a short distance of the main assembly plant.
 For companies such as Toyota and Honda, this decision
decreased costs of transportation, coordination,
monitoring, and contracting.
WAVES OF GLOBALIZATION
By: MADDY.KALEEM

15.  Although agglomeration economies benefit those in
clusters, they are bad news for those who are left
out.
 A region can be uncompetitive simply because not
enough firms have chosen to relocate there.
 Thus, a divided world can emerge where a network
of manufacturing firms is clustered in some high-
wage region, while wages in remaining regions stay
low.
 Most developing countries did not participate in the
growth of global trade in manufacturing and
services, their trade was confined to only
agricultural and natural resource products.
WAVES OF GLOBALIZATION
By: MADDY.KALEEM

16. Latest wave of Globalization:
 This wave of globalization, which began in 1980s, is
distinctive.
 First, a large number of developing countries, such
as China, India, and Brazil, broke into the world
markets for manufacturers.
 Second, other developing countries became
increasingly marginalized in the world economy and
realized decreasing incomes and increaseing
poverty.
 Third, international capital movements, which were
modest during the second wave of globalization,
again became significant.
WAVES OF GLOBALIZATION
By: MADDY.KALEEM

17.  Some developing countries for the first time
succeeded in harnessing their labor abundance to
provide them with competitive advantage in labor-
intensive manufacturing.
 Tariff cuts in developed countries made imports of
manufacturing goods possible from countries such
as Malaysia, Turkey, Mexico, Hungary, Indonesia,
and Thailand.
 Many developing countries liberalized barriers to
foreign investment, which encourage companies
such as Ford Motor Company to relocate assembly
within their borders.
WAVES OF GLOBALIZATION
By: MADDY.KALEEM