Geological fieldwork is one of the most fundamental parts of Geology. This is not only the most effective way to learn geology, but also through which most of the breakthroughs came in the history of geology. Realizing the significance, the Department of Geology of University of Dhaka added Field Geology in the curriculum and every year the students visit a geological site for fieldwork and study it thoroughly. So the students from 49th batch of the department went on a weeklong fieldwork in Sitakund, Chittagong, Bangladesh in January, 2018. This was their first fieldwork and they were led by two highly experienced professors in Field Geology.
As the Sitakund area lies in the Indo-Burma Range, a prominent thrust-faulted anticline covers most of the Sitakund area. This fold is widely known as the "Sitakund Anticline". The fault strikes NW-SE and dips eastward. Its eastern flank is thrusted over the western flank. This anticline also created a petroleum trap, which accumulated natural gas over millions of years. And due to the thrust faulting, many gas seepages are found along the faulted region of the anticline.
The primary objective of this fieldwork was to create a geological map of Sitakund from the base map. Another goal was to study the structural and geomorphological features, sedimentary structures, lithology of the rocks and also to assess the economic significance of the natural resources of Sitakund.
The team of students went to four of the sections in Sitakund and studied outcrops. With the help of their professors, they studied features like joints, fault, drag fold, lenticular bedding, load cast, flute marks, cross lamination, graded bedding, flaser bedding etc. They collected fossil and rock samples for further studies. They also noted the attitude of the beds with compass-clinometer while studying the outcrops. Analyzing the data, they identified the westerly dipping western flank, the eastern flank, the axis of the anticline and overturned beds due to thrusting. Finally they drew a conclusion with the interpretation of collected data.
After returning from the fieldwork, the students prepared field reports in groups. The field report cited all of their findings during the fieldwork. They also presented gist of their field reports in front of the teachers. The final assessment was made on their activities during the fieldwork, presentation and field report.
As a part of the academic curriculum, this fieldwork helped the students correlate the knowledge of books with the knowledge from observation. This fieldwork enabled them to experience the diversity of geology and inspired them to become influential geologists in the future.
This document discusses the physical properties of rocks. It defines a rock as an aggregate of mineral particles that can be sedimentary, metamorphic, or igneous. Physical properties describe the performance of rocks under different conditions and help classify rocks. These properties include specific gravity, density, porosity, permeability, and electrical/thermal conductivity. Mineralogical composition, structure, and texture also influence the physical properties of a rock. The document provides examples of common rock-forming minerals and explains how properties like density and specific gravity are measured and used to characterize rocks.
Stress is the internal resistance of a material against an applied load or force. There are different types of stress that rocks can experience, including lithostatic stress from the weight of overlying rocks, and differential stress from tectonic forces like tension, compression, and shearing. Rocks deform in response to stress in different ways depending on factors like pressure, temperature, and composition. At low stresses rocks deform elastically and return to their original shape when unloaded. At higher stresses near the surface, rocks deform brittlely and fracture. Deeper underground, higher temperatures cause ductile deformation where rocks flow plastically. The stress-strain behavior of rocks is important for understanding their mechanical properties and failure under stress
Aeolian process and landform by shivam soni B.Sc student of Department of App...shivamsoni2011
Wind processes produce eolian landforms. One third of the planet's land is arid or semi-arid. Wind action can be divided into erosion, transportation, and deposition. Erosion includes deflation, abrasion, and attrition which produce features like yardangs, ventifacts, and desert pavement. Transportation occurs by saltation, suspension, and surface creep. Deposition forms sand seas and sheets. Sand dunes depend on wind strength and direction, and come in various shapes that can migrate over time.
This presentation discusses heavy minerals, which have a density over 2.8g/cm3 and comprise less than 1% of sandstone. Heavy minerals can be extracted via dry mining of shallow deposits or wet mining using dredges for deeper deposits below the water table. Seventeen placer deposits of heavy minerals have been found along the coast of Bangladesh, containing over 4 million tons of minerals like ilmenite, magnetite, zircon, and rutile. These heavy mineral deposits represent an important economic resource for Bangladesh.
1. Grouting, rock bolting, shotcrete/guniting, and cable anchorage are effective methods for improving rock mass properties.
2. Grouting involves injecting a liquid into cracks and fissures in rock to fill voids and strengthen the rock mass. Common grout materials include cement and chemical grouts.
3. Rock bolting reinforces unstable rock by drilling holes and anchoring steel bolts to take load off weak planes and increase shear resistance.
Glacial processes and their land forms.Pramoda Raj
Glaciers are masses of ice that move due to gravity. They erode the landscape through abrasion and plucking, and transport material large distances. Glaciers deposit this material as till or outwash. Glacial processes form characteristic landforms such as cirques, arêtes, and u-shaped valleys through erosion and landforms like moraines and eskers through deposition. Glacial lakes are also left behind when a glacier melts.
This document provides information about fluvial and alluvial fan systems. It begins with an introduction to why fluvial systems are studied and describes their organization into drainage basins. It then discusses the morphology of rivers and floodplains. The rest of the document describes various fluvial environments like bars, channels, overbank areas and different channel patterns for braided, meandering and anastomosing rivers. It also discusses alluvial fans and their facies. In summary, the document outlines fluvial system components, morphologies and depositional environments to understand sediment transport and deposition.
This document discusses the physical properties of rocks. It defines a rock as an aggregate of mineral particles that can be sedimentary, metamorphic, or igneous. Physical properties describe the performance of rocks under different conditions and help classify rocks. These properties include specific gravity, density, porosity, permeability, and electrical/thermal conductivity. Mineralogical composition, structure, and texture also influence the physical properties of a rock. The document provides examples of common rock-forming minerals and explains how properties like density and specific gravity are measured and used to characterize rocks.
Stress is the internal resistance of a material against an applied load or force. There are different types of stress that rocks can experience, including lithostatic stress from the weight of overlying rocks, and differential stress from tectonic forces like tension, compression, and shearing. Rocks deform in response to stress in different ways depending on factors like pressure, temperature, and composition. At low stresses rocks deform elastically and return to their original shape when unloaded. At higher stresses near the surface, rocks deform brittlely and fracture. Deeper underground, higher temperatures cause ductile deformation where rocks flow plastically. The stress-strain behavior of rocks is important for understanding their mechanical properties and failure under stress
Aeolian process and landform by shivam soni B.Sc student of Department of App...shivamsoni2011
Wind processes produce eolian landforms. One third of the planet's land is arid or semi-arid. Wind action can be divided into erosion, transportation, and deposition. Erosion includes deflation, abrasion, and attrition which produce features like yardangs, ventifacts, and desert pavement. Transportation occurs by saltation, suspension, and surface creep. Deposition forms sand seas and sheets. Sand dunes depend on wind strength and direction, and come in various shapes that can migrate over time.
This presentation discusses heavy minerals, which have a density over 2.8g/cm3 and comprise less than 1% of sandstone. Heavy minerals can be extracted via dry mining of shallow deposits or wet mining using dredges for deeper deposits below the water table. Seventeen placer deposits of heavy minerals have been found along the coast of Bangladesh, containing over 4 million tons of minerals like ilmenite, magnetite, zircon, and rutile. These heavy mineral deposits represent an important economic resource for Bangladesh.
1. Grouting, rock bolting, shotcrete/guniting, and cable anchorage are effective methods for improving rock mass properties.
2. Grouting involves injecting a liquid into cracks and fissures in rock to fill voids and strengthen the rock mass. Common grout materials include cement and chemical grouts.
3. Rock bolting reinforces unstable rock by drilling holes and anchoring steel bolts to take load off weak planes and increase shear resistance.
Glacial processes and their land forms.Pramoda Raj
Glaciers are masses of ice that move due to gravity. They erode the landscape through abrasion and plucking, and transport material large distances. Glaciers deposit this material as till or outwash. Glacial processes form characteristic landforms such as cirques, arêtes, and u-shaped valleys through erosion and landforms like moraines and eskers through deposition. Glacial lakes are also left behind when a glacier melts.
This document provides information about fluvial and alluvial fan systems. It begins with an introduction to why fluvial systems are studied and describes their organization into drainage basins. It then discusses the morphology of rivers and floodplains. The rest of the document describes various fluvial environments like bars, channels, overbank areas and different channel patterns for braided, meandering and anastomosing rivers. It also discusses alluvial fans and their facies. In summary, the document outlines fluvial system components, morphologies and depositional environments to understand sediment transport and deposition.
This document provides an overview of glaciers, including their formation, movement, and important terminology. It describes the key parts of a glacier, including the accumulation and ablation zones. The document also discusses different types of glaciers and their varying speeds of movement. Finally, it covers the erosional and depositional landforms created by glaciers, such as moraines, eskers, and drumlins.
The document discusses aeolian (wind-related) landforms and processes. It describes how wind can erode, transport, and deposit materials through various processes like abrasion, deflation, and saltation. Some erosional landforms formed by wind include ventifacts, yardangs, and mushroom rocks. Depositional landforms include loess, sand dunes (which can take various forms like barchan, transverse, parabolic, and longitudinal dunes), and sand ripples. Aeolian processes and landforms are particularly important in arid environments like deserts where wind is a dominant agent of geomorphic change.
This document discusses marginal marine depositional environments including deltas, beaches, barrier island systems, and estuaries. Deltas form where rivers enter standing bodies of water, depositing topset, foreset, and bottomset beds. Beaches have foreshores, backshores, and berms that change with seasons. Barrier islands are long and narrow, separated from the mainland by lagoons. Estuaries are coastal waters where rivers meet the sea, and can be wave-dominated or tide-dominated based on wave and tidal energy influences on sediment transport.
This document provides information about mining and mineral exploration. It begins with an introduction to mining and the materials recovered through mining such as metals, coal, salt, and diamonds. It then discusses the history of mining from the Stone Age to the Iron Age. Tables show production data for various countries and Philippine reserves of metallic and non-metallic ores. The document also covers topics like prospecting methods, geological guides for prospecting, exploration techniques, and equipment used for exploration such as gravimeters, scintillometers, and seismographs.
The document discusses various landforms found in arid and semi-arid landscapes formed by wind erosion. It describes different types of deserts including ergs which are seas of sand, regs which are desert pavements, and hamadas where bedrock predominates. It also outlines various erosional landforms caused by wind such as deflation hollows, ventifacts which are sand-blasted rock surfaces, yardangs, and different types of migrating dunes including longitudinal, transverse, barchan, and parabolic dunes. It provides examples of many of these landforms.
This document describes various sedimentary environments including continental, marine, and transitional environments. Continental environments include fluvial, lacustrine, paludal, glacial, and desert. Marine environments include shallow marine environments like reefs and continental shelves as well as deep marine environments like continental slopes, rises, and abyssal plains. Transitional environments are at the transition between land and sea and include deltas, tidal flats, beaches, barrier islands, and lagoons.
Fractures are weaknesses in rock where separation can occur. They form due to stress from tectonic and other geological forces. There are two main types of fractures: faults where adjacent blocks are displaced parallel to the fracture surface from shearing; and joints where blocks move perpendicular with no displacement. Fractures are important for fluid migration, understanding geology and tectonics, and engineering projects. They are classified based on displacement and can be identified through field evidence like offset strata, slickensides and fault rocks.
The document discusses considerations for selecting dam and reservoir sites from a geological perspective. It defines different dam types including gravity, buttress, arch, and earth dams. Key factors for dam site selection include the underlying rock and soil composition and structure, with impermeable and stable foundations being important. Dams should avoid faults, fractures, and areas prone to erosion or earthquakes. The reservoir site selection process also aims to minimize land usage and sediment intake while ensuring adequate storage capacity.
The document discusses various types of sedimentary structures classified based on their formation process. Primary structures form during deposition without external forces, while secondary structures form after deposition due to forces. Examples of primary structures include ripple marks, cross-bedding and flaser bedding. Secondary structures include sole marks, tool marks and groove marks formed by erosion. Chemical structures also form via processes like dissolution and precipitation. Sedimentary structures provide clues about depositional environments and sediment transport directions.
1) Kerala is located on the southwest coast of India between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats mountains. It has varied geology consisting of Precambrian crystalline rocks, Tertiary sedimentary rocks, and recent sediments.
2) The oldest rocks are Precambrian and include khondalite, charnockite, sargur schists, and dharwar schists, as well as basic and ultrabasic rocks and granites. Tertiary sediments overlie the Precambrian rocks and include the Vaikom, Quilon, and Warkalli formations dating to the Miocene-Pliocene periods.
3) Recent deposits include peat beds, sand bars, and
There are two main forms of igneous rocks:
1) Extrusive rocks form from lava erupted at the Earth's surface and cool rapidly. They include lava flows, pyroclastic deposits like volcanic ash and tuff.
2) Intrusive rocks form from magma that cools below the surface. They can be concordant, forming sheets and domes parallel to layers, like sills and laccoliths, or discordant and cutting across layers, like dikes, batholiths, and volcanic necks.
Most deserts have highly angular landscapes due to mechanical weathering dominating over deposition. Desert rainfall is infrequent, intense, and unreliable, causing flash flooding and erosion. The three main types of deserts are ergs, which are large seas of sand; regs with thin desert pavements of stones; and hamadas dominated by bedrock. In deserts, fluvial erosion carves steep canyons, while deposition forms alluvial fans. Aeolian processes cause erosion through deflation and abrasion, and deposition forms migrating dunes like barchans and transverse dunes. Desert terrain also includes basin and range topography with pediments and playas, and resistant rock landforms emerge like insel
1. The document describes 10 stratigraphic formations observed in the Khewra Gorge and Chowa Road section in the Salt Range, including their lithology, age, fossils, and contacts.
2. Key formations discussed include the Salt Range Formation (Precambrian-Cambrian), Khewra Sandstone (Early Cambrian), Kussak Formation (Early-Middle Cambrian), and Jutana Formation (Early-Middle Cambrian).
3. Sedimentary structures observed in the field include ripple marks in the Khewra Sandstone formed by migrating ripples, and cross-bedding characterized by inclined layers within horizontal units.
This document discusses structural geology concepts including strike and dip, types of dip, bedding, outcrops, and their dimensions. It defines strike and dip as the orientation of geologic features, with strike being the intersection with a horizontal plane and dip being the angle of inclination. There are different types of dip such as primary from deposition and secondary from tectonic forces. Bedding refers to the deposition of different strata. An outcrop is the exposure of rock at the surface, and its dimensions include width, thickness, and depth which can be measured based on strike and dip.
Metallogenic Epoch and Province
Metallogenetic Epochs
Metallogenetic epochs, as defined above, are specific periods characterised by formation of large number of mineral deposits. It does not mean that all the mineral deposits formed during a definite metallogenetic epochs. In India the chief metallogenetic epochs were:
1. Precambrian
2. Late Palaeozoic
3. Late Mesozoic to Early Tertiary
This document discusses heavy minerals found in placer deposits. Placer deposits form from weathering and erosion of heavy minerals that are then transported and concentrated by gravity and deposited in areas like beaches. Common heavy minerals include ilmenite, magnetite, rutile, zircon and monazite. These minerals can be separated and extracted using physical processes that exploit differences in their magnetic, electrostatic and density properties, such as magnetic separation, electrostatic separation and gravity separation using spiral concentrators. Heavy minerals are economically important and indicators of sediment sources.
The document summarizes engineering properties of soil through a seminar presentation. It discusses various physical and chemical properties of soil including grain size, shape of particles, clay mineral groups, density, specific gravity, consistency limits, shrinkage and swell potential, thixotropy, and shear strength. It outlines methods to determine these properties through in-situ testing and laboratory experiments. The presentation concludes by listing references used in the study of soil mechanics.
Geological structures form in the Earth's crust due to geological causes. There are many types of structures including folds, faults, and joints. Folds form when rock layers bend under stress rather than breaking. Common fold types include anticlines, synclines, domes, and basins. Faults form when rock layers fracture and move relative to each other, and include normal, reverse, and strike-slip faults. Joints are fractures where the rock splits but there is no relative movement, and can form due to processes like cooling, tectonics, and unloading.
This document discusses geophysical prospecting methods used to study the structure of the earth's crust. It focuses on electrical resistivity methods, including resistivity profiling and resistivity sounding. Resistivity profiling uses constant electrode spacing to investigate lateral variations in soil resistivity along lines or parallel lines. Resistivity sounding varies electrode spacing with readings taken at the same point to determine resistivity variation with depth. Both methods can be used to distinguish soil layers and prospect for resources like ores, sand, and gravel.
This document summarizes a study of heavy mineral concentrations and distributions in beach sands between Nerella Valasa and Jalara Peta in Visakhapatnam, India. Samples were collected from dune, backshore, and foreshore environments at 5 stations along the coast. Heavy mineral content ranged from 15-50% by weight and decreased with increasing grain size. Common heavy minerals included ilmenite, magnetite, sillimanite, garnet, zircon, epidote, and monazite. The heavy mineral assemblages were similar across environments and derived from local Khondalite bedrock formations. The study aimed to understand heavy mineral provenance, transportation trends, and variations with textural and
The document provides an overview of the Kutch Basin in India, including its geological history, stratigraphy, exploration status, and hydrocarbon potential. The basin formed during the breakup of eastern and western Gondwanaland and covers an area of 71,000 sq km. Exploration has found good source rocks and reservoirs capable of trapping hydrocarbons. Three discoveries have been made, indicating the basin is petroliferous. Future potential lies in fault-associated structures on land and deep-sea fan deposits offshore.
This document provides an overview of glaciers, including their formation, movement, and important terminology. It describes the key parts of a glacier, including the accumulation and ablation zones. The document also discusses different types of glaciers and their varying speeds of movement. Finally, it covers the erosional and depositional landforms created by glaciers, such as moraines, eskers, and drumlins.
The document discusses aeolian (wind-related) landforms and processes. It describes how wind can erode, transport, and deposit materials through various processes like abrasion, deflation, and saltation. Some erosional landforms formed by wind include ventifacts, yardangs, and mushroom rocks. Depositional landforms include loess, sand dunes (which can take various forms like barchan, transverse, parabolic, and longitudinal dunes), and sand ripples. Aeolian processes and landforms are particularly important in arid environments like deserts where wind is a dominant agent of geomorphic change.
This document discusses marginal marine depositional environments including deltas, beaches, barrier island systems, and estuaries. Deltas form where rivers enter standing bodies of water, depositing topset, foreset, and bottomset beds. Beaches have foreshores, backshores, and berms that change with seasons. Barrier islands are long and narrow, separated from the mainland by lagoons. Estuaries are coastal waters where rivers meet the sea, and can be wave-dominated or tide-dominated based on wave and tidal energy influences on sediment transport.
This document provides information about mining and mineral exploration. It begins with an introduction to mining and the materials recovered through mining such as metals, coal, salt, and diamonds. It then discusses the history of mining from the Stone Age to the Iron Age. Tables show production data for various countries and Philippine reserves of metallic and non-metallic ores. The document also covers topics like prospecting methods, geological guides for prospecting, exploration techniques, and equipment used for exploration such as gravimeters, scintillometers, and seismographs.
The document discusses various landforms found in arid and semi-arid landscapes formed by wind erosion. It describes different types of deserts including ergs which are seas of sand, regs which are desert pavements, and hamadas where bedrock predominates. It also outlines various erosional landforms caused by wind such as deflation hollows, ventifacts which are sand-blasted rock surfaces, yardangs, and different types of migrating dunes including longitudinal, transverse, barchan, and parabolic dunes. It provides examples of many of these landforms.
This document describes various sedimentary environments including continental, marine, and transitional environments. Continental environments include fluvial, lacustrine, paludal, glacial, and desert. Marine environments include shallow marine environments like reefs and continental shelves as well as deep marine environments like continental slopes, rises, and abyssal plains. Transitional environments are at the transition between land and sea and include deltas, tidal flats, beaches, barrier islands, and lagoons.
Fractures are weaknesses in rock where separation can occur. They form due to stress from tectonic and other geological forces. There are two main types of fractures: faults where adjacent blocks are displaced parallel to the fracture surface from shearing; and joints where blocks move perpendicular with no displacement. Fractures are important for fluid migration, understanding geology and tectonics, and engineering projects. They are classified based on displacement and can be identified through field evidence like offset strata, slickensides and fault rocks.
The document discusses considerations for selecting dam and reservoir sites from a geological perspective. It defines different dam types including gravity, buttress, arch, and earth dams. Key factors for dam site selection include the underlying rock and soil composition and structure, with impermeable and stable foundations being important. Dams should avoid faults, fractures, and areas prone to erosion or earthquakes. The reservoir site selection process also aims to minimize land usage and sediment intake while ensuring adequate storage capacity.
The document discusses various types of sedimentary structures classified based on their formation process. Primary structures form during deposition without external forces, while secondary structures form after deposition due to forces. Examples of primary structures include ripple marks, cross-bedding and flaser bedding. Secondary structures include sole marks, tool marks and groove marks formed by erosion. Chemical structures also form via processes like dissolution and precipitation. Sedimentary structures provide clues about depositional environments and sediment transport directions.
1) Kerala is located on the southwest coast of India between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats mountains. It has varied geology consisting of Precambrian crystalline rocks, Tertiary sedimentary rocks, and recent sediments.
2) The oldest rocks are Precambrian and include khondalite, charnockite, sargur schists, and dharwar schists, as well as basic and ultrabasic rocks and granites. Tertiary sediments overlie the Precambrian rocks and include the Vaikom, Quilon, and Warkalli formations dating to the Miocene-Pliocene periods.
3) Recent deposits include peat beds, sand bars, and
There are two main forms of igneous rocks:
1) Extrusive rocks form from lava erupted at the Earth's surface and cool rapidly. They include lava flows, pyroclastic deposits like volcanic ash and tuff.
2) Intrusive rocks form from magma that cools below the surface. They can be concordant, forming sheets and domes parallel to layers, like sills and laccoliths, or discordant and cutting across layers, like dikes, batholiths, and volcanic necks.
Most deserts have highly angular landscapes due to mechanical weathering dominating over deposition. Desert rainfall is infrequent, intense, and unreliable, causing flash flooding and erosion. The three main types of deserts are ergs, which are large seas of sand; regs with thin desert pavements of stones; and hamadas dominated by bedrock. In deserts, fluvial erosion carves steep canyons, while deposition forms alluvial fans. Aeolian processes cause erosion through deflation and abrasion, and deposition forms migrating dunes like barchans and transverse dunes. Desert terrain also includes basin and range topography with pediments and playas, and resistant rock landforms emerge like insel
1. The document describes 10 stratigraphic formations observed in the Khewra Gorge and Chowa Road section in the Salt Range, including their lithology, age, fossils, and contacts.
2. Key formations discussed include the Salt Range Formation (Precambrian-Cambrian), Khewra Sandstone (Early Cambrian), Kussak Formation (Early-Middle Cambrian), and Jutana Formation (Early-Middle Cambrian).
3. Sedimentary structures observed in the field include ripple marks in the Khewra Sandstone formed by migrating ripples, and cross-bedding characterized by inclined layers within horizontal units.
This document discusses structural geology concepts including strike and dip, types of dip, bedding, outcrops, and their dimensions. It defines strike and dip as the orientation of geologic features, with strike being the intersection with a horizontal plane and dip being the angle of inclination. There are different types of dip such as primary from deposition and secondary from tectonic forces. Bedding refers to the deposition of different strata. An outcrop is the exposure of rock at the surface, and its dimensions include width, thickness, and depth which can be measured based on strike and dip.
Metallogenic Epoch and Province
Metallogenetic Epochs
Metallogenetic epochs, as defined above, are specific periods characterised by formation of large number of mineral deposits. It does not mean that all the mineral deposits formed during a definite metallogenetic epochs. In India the chief metallogenetic epochs were:
1. Precambrian
2. Late Palaeozoic
3. Late Mesozoic to Early Tertiary
This document discusses heavy minerals found in placer deposits. Placer deposits form from weathering and erosion of heavy minerals that are then transported and concentrated by gravity and deposited in areas like beaches. Common heavy minerals include ilmenite, magnetite, rutile, zircon and monazite. These minerals can be separated and extracted using physical processes that exploit differences in their magnetic, electrostatic and density properties, such as magnetic separation, electrostatic separation and gravity separation using spiral concentrators. Heavy minerals are economically important and indicators of sediment sources.
The document summarizes engineering properties of soil through a seminar presentation. It discusses various physical and chemical properties of soil including grain size, shape of particles, clay mineral groups, density, specific gravity, consistency limits, shrinkage and swell potential, thixotropy, and shear strength. It outlines methods to determine these properties through in-situ testing and laboratory experiments. The presentation concludes by listing references used in the study of soil mechanics.
Geological structures form in the Earth's crust due to geological causes. There are many types of structures including folds, faults, and joints. Folds form when rock layers bend under stress rather than breaking. Common fold types include anticlines, synclines, domes, and basins. Faults form when rock layers fracture and move relative to each other, and include normal, reverse, and strike-slip faults. Joints are fractures where the rock splits but there is no relative movement, and can form due to processes like cooling, tectonics, and unloading.
This document discusses geophysical prospecting methods used to study the structure of the earth's crust. It focuses on electrical resistivity methods, including resistivity profiling and resistivity sounding. Resistivity profiling uses constant electrode spacing to investigate lateral variations in soil resistivity along lines or parallel lines. Resistivity sounding varies electrode spacing with readings taken at the same point to determine resistivity variation with depth. Both methods can be used to distinguish soil layers and prospect for resources like ores, sand, and gravel.
This document summarizes a study of heavy mineral concentrations and distributions in beach sands between Nerella Valasa and Jalara Peta in Visakhapatnam, India. Samples were collected from dune, backshore, and foreshore environments at 5 stations along the coast. Heavy mineral content ranged from 15-50% by weight and decreased with increasing grain size. Common heavy minerals included ilmenite, magnetite, sillimanite, garnet, zircon, epidote, and monazite. The heavy mineral assemblages were similar across environments and derived from local Khondalite bedrock formations. The study aimed to understand heavy mineral provenance, transportation trends, and variations with textural and
The document provides an overview of the Kutch Basin in India, including its geological history, stratigraphy, exploration status, and hydrocarbon potential. The basin formed during the breakup of eastern and western Gondwanaland and covers an area of 71,000 sq km. Exploration has found good source rocks and reservoirs capable of trapping hydrocarbons. Three discoveries have been made, indicating the basin is petroliferous. Future potential lies in fault-associated structures on land and deep-sea fan deposits offshore.
The Deccan Traps formed during the late Cretaceous period through volcanic eruptions in western, central, and southern India. The eruptions resulted in enormous lava flows that covered over 1.5 million square kilometers. The lava cooled to form thick basalt deposits in some places over 3000 meters thick. The Deccan Traps are classified into upper, middle, and lower sections. They overlie various older rock formations and contain intertrappean beds. The volcanic rocks mainly consist of basalt and have economic uses as building material and as a source of minerals.
This document provides information about glacial processes and landforms at different scales. It discusses factors that influence glacial erosion rates like ice thickness, precipitation, ablation rates, and bedrock permeability. Landforms formed include cirques, arêtes, pyramidal peaks, truncated spurs, U-shaped valleys, hanging valleys, and ribbon lakes at the macro scale. Meso scale features include whalebacks, roches moutonnées, and crag and tail formations. Micro features provide evidence of ice flow direction through striations, chatter marks, and crescentic gouges. The document emphasizes that landforms result from multiple glacial periods and different glacial processes of erosion, entrainment, transport, and deposition
Types of dams, geological considerations in site selection, Competency of Rocks to offer stable dam foundation, effect of geological structures on dam, selection of dam site, Reservoir, purpose of reservoir, influence of water table, geological structures, life of reservoir, geophysical studies
This document discusses various topics relating to glacial hydrology:
- Meltwater plays a key role in glacial erosion, transportation, and deposition of material. It is involved in processes like plucking, abrasion, basal sliding, and subglacial bed formation.
- Meltwater is derived from surface melting and basal melting. It transports sediment within the glacier and in streams that emerge from the glacier.
- Glacial deposits include till, drumlins, moraines, eskers, and outwash plains formed from fluvio-glacial sediments. Landforms provide clues about glacial transport processes and ice flow direction.
- Kames, kame terraces
Topography and sediments of the floor of the Bay of BengalMd Hasan Tareq
The Bay of Bengal exhibits a diverse and complex topography on its seafloor, characterized by deep trenches, abyssal plains, submarine canyons, seamounts, and volcanic ridges.
The topography is influenced by tectonic processes, sediment accumulation from the Himalayas, and river transport.
The sediment distribution patterns in the Bay of Bengal are influenced by various factors, including river inputs, ocean currents, and seafloor topography.
Limestone mining can negatively impact the environment in several ways. A case study of limestone mining in the Katni River watershed of Madhya Pradesh, India found that: (1) Opencast limestone mines increased calcium levels and total hardness in groundwater, degrading local water quality beyond standards. (2) Mines located in higher elevation areas caused turbid runoff that polluted downstream areas. (3) Within 11 years, calcium levels in the area increased by over 100% and hardness by over 500% due to limestone mining impacts on groundwater. Strict preventative measures are needed to curb further pollution from mining.
The report summarizes a 4-day geological field excursion from Islamabad to various locations in Sargodha and Chiniot districts of Pakistan. The excursion involved visiting different rock formations and structures. On the first day in Qilla Hills, the group observed light green dolerite containing amphibole and plagioclase intruding into quartzite. Convolution banding was also observed at the second station. The report provides details on the stratigraphy, locations visited, and field observations made each day to enhance the participants' geological knowledge.
This document summarizes the Archean crustal building process. It describes how early Archean crust formed from successive volcanic eruptions that deposited greenstone belts in synclinorial basins. As the greenstone belts thickened due to continued volcanic activity and accretion, melting produced tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) batholiths. Further thickening led to emplacement of potash-rich granites and the process of charnockitization around 2.6 billion years ago. The Archean crust evolved through alternating sequences of greenstone belt formation, TTG emergence, and granite intrusion driven by volcanism, melting, and mantle degassing over time.
A geological journey along the south Ceredigion coast.Prof Simon Haslett
This document provides a summary of the geology along the southern coast of Ceredigion, Wales. It describes the different geological time periods represented in the local rock formations, from the Quaternary period to the Ordovician period from over 400 million years ago. It focuses on the Yr Allt Formation from the Ashgill series of the Silurian period, which dates to the Hirnantian global ice age around 445 million years ago. Features of this formation like slumping, ripples marks, and dewatering structures provide evidence of rapid deposition in shallow seas during a period of falling sea levels.
Rivers shape the landscape through erosion and deposition over time. They begin as steep youthful streams that cut deep v-shaped valleys through hydraulic action and abrasion. As rivers mature, their gradients decrease and they develop meanders, floodplains and other features. In old age, rivers slowly wind across broad valleys and deposit sediment to form deltas, alluvial fans and ox-bow lakes as they can no longer carry coarse material.
The document presents a presentation on karst topography given by Ahmad Raza. It defines karst topography as areas with limestone or dolomite bedrock that have distinctive landforms formed by the dissolution of bedrock by water. It discusses the worldwide distribution of karst areas and the conditions required for karst formation. Key erosional landforms of karst include sinkholes, dolines, swallow holes, and caves. Depositional landforms include stalactites, stalagmites, and columns. Karst landscapes progress through youth, mature, and old stages as surface streams disappear underground over time. Karst is important for engineering projects, water resource studies, and paleoclimate research.
Gaspar Grande Island is located off the coast of Trinidad and contains the Gasparee Cave system. The cave formed through the dissolution of the island's limestone bedrock by acidic groundwater. It contains numerous geological formations like stalactites, stalagmites, and pillars. Sinkholes are depressions above cave systems that form when the cave roof collapses. They provide openings into the cave below. Caves differ from sinkholes in that caves are the underground passages formed by limestone dissolution over time.
PROSPECTING TECHNIQUES AND EXPLORATION FOR COAL AT GSI CAMP AMARWARA, CHINDWARA Shivam Jain
PROSPECTING TECHNIQUES AND EXPLORATION FOR COAL AT GSI CAMP AMARWARA, CHINDWARA
for download...click on this https://dlsharefile.com/file/NzA2YTI2YTYt
https://khabarbabal.online/file/NzA2YTI2YTYt
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda: Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intelligent Systems.
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
Basics of crystallography, crystal systems, classes and different forms
Geological Fieldwork on Sitakund Anticline
1. PRESENTATION
ON
GEOLOGICAL FIELDWORK
SITAKUND ANTICLINE, CHITTAGONG, BANGLADEH
PRESENTED BY
TEAM AMETRINE
I. MOHAMMAD SOLAIMAN (SH-070-019)
II. MUHAMMAD ARIFUR RAHMAN (SH-070-002)
III. NOUSHIN AKTER TISHA (RH-070-005)
IV. WAHIDATUNNESSA MOHONA (SK-070-006)
V. IQBAL HASAN (SH-070-013)
VI. ASIF ALVE (SH-070-016)
Department Of Geology
University Of Dhaka
2. BRIEF OVERVIEW
• Timeline: 4th January – 9th January, 2018
• Location: Sitakund, Chittagong, Bangladesh
• Base Camp: YPSA Human Resource Development Center
• Number of Studied Sections: 4
Team Leader: Dr. Subrota Kumar Saha
Teachers: Dr. Badrul Imam
Md. Shakhawat Hossain
Md. Yusuf Gazi
4. OBJECTIVES
OF
GEOLOGICAL FIELDWORK
✓ Producing the geological map of Sitakund
from the base map
✓ Identifying and analyzing the Sitakund
Anticline
✓ Study the structural, geomorphic,
sedimentary & lithological features of the
Sitakund Hill Range
5. REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF SITAKUND HILL RANGE
Region :
Sitakund Hill Range is one of the most notable hill ranges in
Bangladesh.
❑ 70 km long & 10 km wide.
Location (Base Map):
❑ Latitude : 22⁰34’25”N to 22⁰41’10”N .
❑ Longitude : 91⁰37’50”E to 91⁰43’E
❑ Lies in the North-western part of Chittagong city .
❑ Practically a hilly region .
7. AERIAL VIEW OF SITAKUND ANTICLINE
(SATELLITE MAP)
3D View of the Anticline
8. TECTONIC CAUSE FOR THE FORMATION OF
SITAKUND ANTICLINE
❑Collision of Indian plate & Burma
Plate.
❑Uprising of landmass at the
convergent boundary between two
plates.
❑Continuous increase of pressure.
❑Formation of folded regions.
❑Occurrence of fault as a result of
excess pressure buildup.
13. GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF
SITAKUND HILL RANGE
➢ Structural Features
➢ Geomorphic Features
➢ Various Sedimentary Structures
➢ Lithology of Rocks
➢ Economic Mineral Deposits &
Resources
14. STUDIED SECTIONS IN THE FIELDWORK
1) Day 1 - Labanakkhya Stream ,
Shahasradhara Waterfall &
Balukhali Stream
2) Day 2 – Baraiyadhala Section &
Chagalkainda Stream
3) Day 3 - Microwave Road-Cut
Section & Chandranath Temple
4) Day 4 - Barabkund Section
25. WATERFALL
A waterfall is a place
where water flows over a
vertical drop or a series of
steep drops in the course
of a stream or river. There
was a waterfall at the
eastern flank named
Shahasradhara Waterfall.
26. PLUNGE POOL
• A plunge pool is a depression
in a stream bed at the base of
a waterfall.
• It is created by the erosional
forces of falling water on the
rocks at fall's base where the
water impacts.
• There we witnessed plunge
pool at the bottom of the
Shasradhara Waterfall.
28. RAPID
• Rapid is a fast-flowing and turbulent part of the course of a stream.
• They are sections of a stream where the stream bed has a relatively steep slope.
• They are the hydrological features between a smoothly flowing part of a
stream and a cascade.
30. POTHOLE
• A pothole is a circular or
cylindrical hole in the stream
bed which is produced by force
of water and abrasion.
• A pothole is formed when a
circular current of water
carrying small pebbles and
sediment begins to wear away
a rock surface.
• We have seen potholes in
Balukhali section.
32. VALLEY
• A valley is a low area between hills, often with a stream
running through it.
• In geology, a valley is a depression that is longer than it is
wide.
35. THRUST FAULT
• A thrust fault is a break in the Earth's crust, across
which younger rocks are pushed above older
rocks.
• This is reverse fault that dip less than 45⁰.
• Hence The hanging wall moves up and over the
footwall.
44. Concretions
• A concretion is a hard, compact mass of matter formed by the
precipitation of mineral cement within the spaces between
particles, and is found in sedimentary rock or soil.
51. ROCK PROPERTIES
Shasradhara Waterfall
• There most of the rocks are silty clay which are composed of
silt and clay.
• They are indurated and hard.
• Hence the lithology contains sandstone, siltstone, shale and
mudstone.
52. ROCK PROPERTIES
Balukhali Stream
•In Balukhali Stream, sandstone and shale are interbedded
where sandstone beds are 6-10 inches thick and shale beds
are thinner than sandstone beds.d
•Hence sandstone bed sometimes contains concretions
which can be spherical, ellipsoidal, elongated etc. Their origin
is post-depositional, which means that they are diagenetic
(composition of CaCO3 and water).
53. SILTY SHALE
• Mainly thin bedded and platy.
• Olive to grey green coloured.
• It formed in ancient marine environments in soft
sedimentary deposition.
55. FISSILE
SHALE
• This shale is a fine-grained
sedimentary rock that
forms from the
compaction of silt and
clay-size mineral particles.
• Fissility is caused by
parallel alignment of platy
mineral grains.
56. LAMINATED
SHALE
• Grayish blue coloured
shale.
• It has lenticularbedding
with cross lamination.
• Lenses of sand and clay
are present.
57. SILTSTONE
• Siltstone is hardened sedimentary rock that is
composed primarily of angular silt-sized particles.
• It is is not laminated or easily split into thin layers.
• It forms where water deposit silt and the silt is then
compacted and cemented into a rock.
61. • Occurance of natural gas in
sitakundanticline.
• Number of faults cutting
anticlinethat across the gas
reservoirand the gases are
coming through the fault line.
GAS SEEPAGE
62. USES OF GAS
✓Gas is the most important and useful resource of our Bangladesh.
✓It is used in factory for commercial production and also used for
household work.
✓It is the main resource for electricity and fertilizer production.
✓Gas can also be exported and it is a way to earn foreign currency.
63. GRAVELS
• Gravel is a loose aggregation of rock fragments.
• Gravel deposits are being formed as a result of the
weathering and erosion of rocks.
• It is an important commercial product, with a number of
applications.
• Many roadways are surfaced with gravel.
• It is also used in construction of building.
83. Conglomerate Bed
Conglomerate is
a sedimentary rock usually
composed of rounded quartz
pebbles, cobbles, and
boulders surrounded by a
matrix of sand and finer
component and cementing
material.
84. Gravels
Gravels is an aggregate of
rounded or angular fragment
of rocks and minerals.
According to unified
classification system, particle
sizes ranging from 4.75mm to
76.2mm are categorized as
gravel.
85. Boulders
Boulder is a rock
fragment with size
greater than 25.6
centimeters or (10.1
in) in diameter.
87. Silty Clay
Silt is granular material of a
size between sand and
clay.
Clay is a finely-grained
natural rock or soil material .
Combination of those are
called Silty Clay .
88. Mudstone
Mudstone, a type of
mudrock, is a fine-
grained sedimentary
rock whose original
constituents were
clays or muds .
90. Laminated Shale
Lamination is a small
scale sequence of fine
layers .
Laminations are normally
smaller and less
pronounced
than bedding.
(Less than 1cm ) .
Laminated shale is fine
grained in size .
92. 40 m
25m=
10m
5m
Columnar Section of BARAIYADHALA ROAD CUT SECTION(EASTERN FLANK )
(|||)
(||)
(|)
ROCK TYPEUNIT LITHOLOGY
Shale with sandstone
(3-5 inch )
Massive Sandstone
(slightly laminated,
medium to fine
grained )
Interbedded
Sandstone & Shale
(5-8 inch )
lanticular
Cross laminated
93. C.K-1
(5m)
C.K-2
(sin30° x 20)=
( 10m)
C.K-3
(5m)
Unit Rock Type
20m
CHAGOL-KAINDA STREAM SECTION :-
Mudstone , Claystone
Shale with lenticular bedding
Conglomerate Bed , Shale
96. Uses of Shale
❑Some shales have
special properties that
make them important
resources.
❑Black shales contain
organic material that
sometimes breaks down
to form natural gas or oil.
❑Other shales can be
crushed and mixed with
water to produce clays
that can be made into a
variety of useful objects.
97. Uses of Gravel
❑In construction,
crushed stone is used as
an aggregate in concrete
mixes.
❑Uses in road base and
coverings.
❑Use in concrete, fill (to
fill in low spots), asphalt,
snow and ice control.
❑ concrete products
such as brick, block,
pipe, and decorative
stone.
98. Uses of Boulder
❑Used in artificial
landscapes.
❑Boulders are
crushed into rock
fragments.
❑Used in the
bases of large
infrastructures.
❑Uses in the dams
to protect the river
bank.
100. Day Three
Microwave Road Cut Section
Latitude: 22°38’8” N
Longitude: 91°40’ 14” E
Number of Stations: 8
Starting Station: Sitakund Eco Park
Last Station: Chandranath Temple
103. Joint Set
Joint is a break in a rock
mass where there has
been no relative
movement of rock on
opposite sides of the
break.
Joint Set is the
combination of parallel
joints in the rock.
106. Stream
A stream is a body of
water with a current
confined within a bed
and banks
107. Ridge
A ridge or mountain ridge is a geological feature
consisting of a chain of mountains or hills that
form a continuous elevated crest for some
distance.
111. Shale
Shale is a fine-grained,
clastic sedimentary rock
composed of mud that is a
mix of flakes of clay
minerals.
Tiny fragments (silt-sized
particles) of other
minerals, especially
quartz and calcite.
112. Claystone
A claystone is a mudrock
which does not split in
parallel blocks.
In order for a rock to be a
claystone, it must be up
to half (50%) clay, whose
particles measure less
than 1/256th of a
millimeter.
113. Mudstone
Mudstone, a type of mudrock,
is a fine-grained sedimentary
rock whose original
constituents were clays or
muds.
Grain size is up to .0625
millimetres (0.00246 in) with
individual grains too small to be
distinguished without a
microscope
115. Burrows
Burrow is a hole or
tunnel excavated into
the ground by animal.
A burrow created a
space suitable for
habitation, temporary
refuge, or as a
byproduct of
locomotion.
116. Pseudo bed
a pseudo bedding
plane has the
appearance of a
bedding plane but is
not actually a bed.
118. Ball & pillow structure
Ball & pillow structure are masses
of clastic sediment that take the
form of isolated pillows or
protruding ball structures.
These soft-sediment deformations
are usually found at the base of
sandstone beds that are
interbedded with mudstone.
Also found in limestone beds that
overlie shale.
Hemispherical and kidney shape.
Range in size from a few inches to
several feet.
119. Load cast
Load cast form on the underside of the overlying
denser layer (sands, coarse sands, or gravels),
which is superimposed on a less-dense hydroplastic
layer (muds, silts or finer sands).
The casts take on the form of slight bulges,
swellings, deep or rounded sacks, knobby
excrescences or highly irregular protuberances.
121. Day Four
Barabkund Section
• Latitude: 22°34’53” N
• Longitude: 91°41’8” E
• Number of Stations: 8
• Starting Station: CCC High School
• Last Station: Barabkund Temple
127. Local Unconformity
An unconformity strictly limited to geographic extent
Develops around the margins of a sedimentary basin
Sometimes appears like a disconformity
Identified by presence of residual soil above the surface
of erosion
137. Flaser Bedding
Exhibits alternating sand and mud layers
Typically forms in tidal environment
Sand ripples are filled by mud
Mud consolidates rapidly and protects the sand
layers from erosion
139. Lenticular Bedding
Displays alternating layers of clay and sand
Mud suspended in the water settles down on top of sand
Characterized by sand lenses in mud
Found in supratidal and intertidal zones
Evidence of tidal current and tidal rhythm
145. New Sedimentary Structures
Flute Marks
Sandstone Band
Gravel Bed
Convolute Lamination
Leaf Impression
146. Flute Marks
Found most commonly in Turbidite Deposits
Grooves are created in fine sediments by currents
Sand fills up the grooves
Sand gets compacted and turns into sandstone
Underlying shale rock erodes away
The wavy/groovy bottom of sandstone becomes exposed
Flute cast is a very useful paleocurrent indicator
150. Gravel Bed
Also known as bench gravel
A bed of gravel located at the side of a valley
Represents parts of bed of the stream
Indicates the former location of the stream
152. Convolute Lamination
Forms from turbidity current
Found in shale and fine sand
Forms from rapid settlement of turbidites
Common in intertidal flat deposits
155. Leaf Impression
Found mostly in fissile shale
Leaf gets buried in fine sediments rapidly
Overburden pressure increases as new sediments
accumulate
Hydrogen, oxygen and volatile gases are squeezed
off the leaf due to pressure
Only a thin carbon film of the leaf is left
175. After gathering various data during the
fieldwork, we studied –
❑ The orientation of the axis of the Anticline
❑ The attitude of the fold limbs
❑ The nature of the anticline
❑ Numerous types of sedimentary structures
❑ Lithology of the rocks
❑ Geomorphic features
❑ Structural features
❑ Economic rocks & mineral deposits
183. DAY 1 – LABANAKKHYA STREAM
Station Location Attitude of Bed
Dip
Azimuth
AD DD
1(a) 22°39′54′′ N
91°38′51″ E
232° 30° SW
1(b) 285° 44° NW
1(c) 256° 36° SW
184. Day One
Station Number Direction of Dip Amount of Dip
1(a) 256° SW 36°
1(b) 285° SW 44°
1(c) 232° SW 30°
2 142° SE 90°
3 110° SE 85°
4 236° SW 50°
5 342° NW 11°
6 344° NW 20°
7 248° SW 8°
8 76° NE 36°
9 64° NE 40°
185. Data Analysis
(Anticline)
• Strike and dip readings from the first
station indicates westerly dipping
beds.
• Station 3 and 4 represent overturned
beds.
• Station 5 with gently dipping beds
indicates the axis.
• Rest of the stations show beds dipping
in the east.
• This data characterizes a mesoscopic
anticline, known as the Sitakund
Anticline.
186. Data Analysis
(Thrust Fault)
• Presence of overturned beds in every
section gives evidence of a giant
Reverse Fault.
• Plotting the coordinates of the beds in
the base map, we can deduce the
fault line.
• The fault extends in the northwest and
southeast direction.
• Sitakund Anticline is a mesoscopic,
thrust-faulted anticline.