This document provides information about experiments to determine properties of fuels and lubricants using various laboratory equipment. It discusses the objectives of analyzing fuel and lubricant properties, as well as the components and procedures of key experiments. These include determining flash and fire points using Abel's and Pensky Marten's testers, measuring viscosity with Saybolt and Engler viscometers, and calculating calorific value using bomb and Junker's calorimeters. The experiments are intended to supplement engineering coursework by evaluating fuels and lubricants.

1. Fuels & Lubricants Laboratory Manual
T. Kishen Kumar Reddy, Ph.D.(Drexel)
Professor of Mechanical Engg. & RECTOR
Jawaharlal Nehru Tech.University Hyderabad
Hyderabad, Telangana, India
August 2014

2. MISSION STATEMENT The primary objective of this laboratory is to determine properties of several fuels and lubricants, compare them with standards so as to get an idea about it’s quality. This lab will supplement theoretical inputs in the basic sciences and engineering courses. Teams of students will participate in several experiments over the duration of the Laboratory course. Each member of the team will produce a technical report of their findings which should include:
 a problem statement,
 a description of any required calculations (including a
sample calculation),
 a copy of the raw data sheet,
 a discussion of the experimental results including an
assessment of experimental uncertainty, and
 conclusions.

3. Fuel: A fuel is a solid, liquid or gaseous substance which on burning or oxidation releases significant amounts of energy. Generally, it refers to hydrocarbon fuels but there are other types of inorganic fuels as well such as those used in rockets, missiles, etc.
 Solid – Coal*(Anthracite/Bituminous/Sub-Bituminous/Lignite/Peat),
Wood, Cow dung, Agro-waste, Garbage-urban, etc.
 Liquid – Crude oil* and its derivatives* such as:
Gasoline, Aviation Turbine Fuel, Light Diesel Oil,
Kerosene etc.
 Gaseous – Natural Gas* and Compressed Natural
Gas*, Liquefied Petroleum Gas*, Biogas, Acetylene
* denotes fossil fuels which are non-renewable
RANK OF COAL

4. Laboratory testing of fuels can be broadly classified into seven groups based on the following characteristics:
1.Volatility - Distillation, Vapour pressure, Flash and Fire Point
2.Combustion – Antiknock quality (Octane number), Ignition Quality Cetane number), Calorific Value, Burning Quality
3.Viscosity and Consistency – Viscosity: Engler, Saybolt, Redwood & Kinematic; Viscosity Index, Penetration Tests.
4.Melting Point – Freezing point; Cloud point, Pour Point; Drop point of Grease, Setting Point of Wax, Softening Point of Bitumen.
5.Oxidation - Induction period of Gasoline, Stability Tests of Lube oils, Residue on Evaporation, Gum Content
6.Corrosion and Protection – Total Sulfur, Doctor Test, Acidity and Alkalinity; Corrosion protection properties
7.Sundry Tests – Ash, Carbon Residue, Asphaltenes, Dilution Test, Dielectric Strength, De-emulsification

5. Need for the measurement of fuel properties:
Flash & Fire Pts. – Important from the point of view of safety, as low flash petroleum products have potential for fire hazards in storage and/or handling.
Viscosity – of a liquid is a measure of its resistance to flow. It plays an important role in the design of fuel pumps.
Calorific Value - is a measure of the heat producing capacity of a fuel. The designers of Boilers, Furnaces, Engines, etc need to know the type of fuel to be used and pertinent properties.
Carbon Residue – It gives an indication of the coke forming tendency of the fuel. The Board of Revenue utilizes this property for classification of fuels for excise duty purposes. It is also used in design calculations of vessels.

6. Lubricant: is a solid, liquid or gaseous substance introduced under pressure, in between two rubbing surfaces under relative motion; thereby lessening the friction and abrasion, and keeping the surfaces apart. Classified as:
Mineral lubricants: are products obtained from fractional distillation of crude oil:-
 Lubricating oils,
 Vaseline's, and
 Paraffin waxes
 Fixed Oils & Fats: Animal products or vegetable oils. Distinction between oil and fat is a matter of temperature. Below -20°C all oils become fats and > 50°C, all fats become oils. These are known as fixed oils because unlike mineral oils, they either decompose by distillation at comparatively low temps. or oxidize, thus they become thick, gummy and corroding with little lube value. Many animal fats have greater lube power than mineral oils of same viscosity, but they decompose under heat, setting free acids, which attack metals.

7. Lubricating Oils are characterized by:
Physical properties such as: flash and fire point, viscosity, oiliness, cold test, volatility and specific gravity.
Chemical properties such as: Acidity, Saponification Value, Insoluble residue and demulsibility.
Lube oils are used under varied conditions, and a lubricant is selected according to the requirements. Thus, knowledge of various properties is essential for selecting a proper lubricant for a particular machine.

8. Use of lubricants & Properties Tested:
Automotive Lubricants: Engine Oils, Gear Oils, Transmission Oils, Specialty Oils (Flash Point, Pour Point, K. Viscosity, Viscosity Index) and Greases (type of soap, worked penetration @ 25°C, Drop Point)
Industrial Lubricants: Bearing Oils & Greases; Compressor Oils (Conradson Carbon Residue), Gear Oils (Timken OK Load), Heat Treatment Oils, Heat Transfer Oils, Hydraulic Oils, Cutting Oils, Railroad Oils (Saponificn. Value, C Residue) , Refrigeration Oils (Floc Point, Dielectric Strength), Rust Preventive Oils, Rubber Processing Oils (+ Asphaltenes, Polar Compds., Aromatics, Saturates), Textile Machinery Oils (Saponificn. Value), Turbine Oils, Speciality Oils, Industrial Greases (type of soap, worked penetration @ 25C, Drop Point)

11. ABEL’S FLASH AND FIRE POINT TESTING (< 50°C)
I. AIM:
To determine the flash and fire points of the given fuel oil using Abel’s flash and fire point tester.
II. APPARATUS :
Abel’s Flash and Fire point tester, thermometers of suitable range and given oil to be tested.
III. THEORY :
The fire hazards involved in the storage and handling of fuel oils are indicated by the flash and fire points. However, there is no correlation between flash and fire points of an oil and its ignition temperature.
IV. FLASH POINT:
Flash point is minimum temperature at which an oil gives off sufficient vapours to form inflammable mixture with air that ignite momentarily when exposed to a flame or an electric spark. Presence of water and volatile organic substances modify the flash point.
V. FIRE POINT:
Fire point is the minimum temperature at which an oil produces a mixture of its vapours and air that will burn continuously once ignited, even after the removal of test flame. The fire point is 25 – 50°C above flash point

13. The flash and fire points are found under two conditions of surroundings, that is, open and closed. When the cup is open, flash point is known as open flash point, when closed by a lid, it is closed flash point. In open cup, the oil is heated with the upper surface of the oil exposed to the room. The vapours rise above the surface of the oil, and are influenced by the air currents inside the room. The air inside the room is cool and thereby cools the rising vapours. Thus for open cup flash point a higher temperature is reached due to cool air than for the closed flash point; the difference is greater, the higher the flash point of the oil. A lubricant with a higher flash point is more safe. An oil with open cup flash point less than 150 C is not used as a lubricant. The open flash point of all lubricating oils ranges from 150 C – 340 C. The flash points of fixed oils are > than for mineral oils of similar viscosities (230-330 C for open cup). Flash Point for Commercial Fuels Fuel Oil 65 °C Power Kerosene 27 °C

17. PENSKY MARTEN’S
FLASH & FIRE POINT
APPARATUS (> 50°C)

18. PENSKY MARTEN'S FLASH AND FIRE POINT TESTING I. AIM: To determine the flash and fire points of the given fuel oil using Pensky Marten's flash and fire point tester. II. APPARATUS : Pensky Marten's Flash and Fire point tester, thermometers of suitable range and given oil to be tested. III. THEORY : The fire hazards involved in the storage and handling of fuel oils are indicated by the flash and fire points. However, there is no correlation between flash and fire points of an oil and its ignition temperature. IV. FLASH POINT: Flash point is minimum temperature at which an oil gives off sufficient vapours to form inflammable mixture with air. V. FIRE POINT: Fire point is the minimum temperature at which an oil produces a mixture of its vapours and air that will burn continuously once ignited, even after the removal of test flame.

23. Viscosity: When two surfaces are entirely separated by a film of lubricant the frictional force is entirely due to viscosity of lubricant. The two surfaces are said to operate in hydrodynamic or 'fluid film" friction. The Viscosity of fluid is defined as the shearing force per unit area required to produce a velocity gradient of unit volume. (F/A) Viscosity = ------------ (dV/dY) where F = Force required to produce the velocity gradient; A = Area of liquid film. V = Fluid velocity at a distance Y from stationary plate.

24. The Viscosity of a fluid is an important property in the analysis of liquid behavior and fluid motion near solid boundaries.
The viscosity is the fluid resistance to shear or flow and is a measure of the adhesive/ cohesive or frictional fluid property.
The resistance is caused by intermolecular friction exerted when layers of fluids attempts to slide by another.
The knowledge of viscosity is needed for proper design of required temperatures for storage, pumping or injection of fluids

25. The viscosity measures the resistance to the flow of a fluid and is inversely proportional to its fluidity. Greater the viscosity of a fluid, greater is the load under which it can maintain a continuous film, for liquids it decreases and for gases it increases with temperature.
The change per degree C is greater for mineral oils. The viscosities of oils when measured under great pressure are greater than the viscosities which are measured under atmospheric pressure. The viscosities are usually measured at 40°C and 60°C.

26. Viscosity and Specific Gravity of some Typical Liquids
centiPoise (cP)
centiStokes (cSt)
Saybolt Second Universal (SSU)
Typical liquid
Specific Gravity
1
1
31
Water
1.0
3.2
4
40
Milk
-
12.6
15.7
80
No. 4 fuel oil
0.82 - 0.95
16.5
20.6
100
Cream
-
34.6
43.2
200
Vegetable oil
0.91 - 0.95
88
110
500
SAE 10 oil
0.88 - 0.94
176
220
1000
Tomato Juice
-
352
440
2000
SAE 30 oil
0.88 - 0.94
820
650
5000
Glycerine
1.26
1561
1735
8000
SAE 50 oil
0.88 - 0.94
1760
2200
10,000
Honey
-
5000
6250
28,000
Mayonnaise
-
15,200
19,000
86,000
Sour cream
-
17,640
19,600
90,000
SAE 70 oil
0.88 - 0.94

28. SAYBOLT VISCOMETER
I.AIM: To determine the viscosity of a lubricating oil by using a Saybolt viscometer. II. APPARATUS : Saybolt viscometer, stop watch and water bath thermometers. III. THEORY : Viscosity of lubricating oils is measured by an instrument known as viscometer. Most of the viscometers are of efflux type. In these, a measured volume of oil at a particular temperature is allowed to efflux through a capillary tube and the time of flow is noted in seconds. Saybolt viscometer is employed by the oil industry in U.S.A. The units of dynamic viscosity stokes in MKS units is centipoise and in the SI system are Mpa-s. Similarly the units of Kinematic viscosity ν in Mks and SI units are centistoke and mVs respectively. VISCOSITY: Viscosity is a measure of resistance to relative translational motion of adjacent layers of a fluid. It is a property of a fluid. The units of viscosity is poise and centipoise. Specific Viscosity : Specific Viscosity is the ratio of the viscosity of fluid to the viscosity of water at 20°C. Since the water has a viscosity of 1 cp at 20°C. Kinematic Viscosity (v): Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density of the fluid.

32. An instrument used in the measurement of the degree Engler, a measure of viscosity; the kinematic viscosity ν in stokes for this instrument is obtained from the equation
ν = 0.00147t - 3.74/t,
where t is the efflux time in seconds.
Degree Engler: A measure of viscosity; the ratio of the time of flow of 200 milliliters of the liquid through a viscometer devised by Engler, to the time for the flow of the same volume of water.

33. Engler's Viscometer Aim: To find the viscosity of a given sample of Lubricating oil Appartus: Engler Viscometer, 200cc of standard flask, Thermometer, Stop Watch, Spirit Level Description: The apparatus consists of an oil cup made of brass is placed centrally in a bath containing water. Inside the oil cup there are three gauges to the level of its tips in which oil is to be poured. There is a standard orifice at the center of the base of the cup. The lower end of the oil cup is provided with a thermometer for recording the temperature of the oil and to insert a Bakelite valve sticks. The whole bath is centrally located for the purpose to stop or to allow the flow of the oil through the orifice. The oil cup is surrounded by a water bath, which is heated by means of an electric heating element. The bath is provided with stirrer and a thermometer holding device. The whole apparatus is mounted on a tripod stand, which can be leveled by the adjustment of leveling feet.

34. Procedure:
Clean the oil cup & dry it.
Pour the water in the water bath & level the instrument filter
Filter the oil and pour it into oil cup up to the mark.
In a careful and controlled manner heat the water and stir it
continuously until desired temperature is reached.
Stop stirrer and place the clean 200cc flask below the orifice,
Lift the valve stick by means of Hydrometer.
Determine the specific gravity of the oil at different temperatures and
use these densities for further calculations.
Calculate the kinematic and absolute viscosity and tabulate the results. Kinematic Viscosity = At - (B/t) centistokes. Where A&B are Engler Viscometer constants A=0.147, B=374 Time taken for 200cc of oil to flow through the orifice at particular temperature. Absolute Viscosity = Kinematic Viscosity x Density

37. Redwood viscometer: A standard British- type viscometer in which the viscosity is determined by the time, in seconds, required for a certain quantity of liquid to pass out through the orifice under given conditions; used for determining viscosities of petroleum oils.

49. BOMB CALORIMETER (SOLIDS & LIQUIDS)
AND
JUNKER’S CALORIMETER (GASES)
PURPOSE:- Bomb calorimeter is used to determine the enthalpy of combustion, ΔHcomb, for hydrocarbons.
CxHyOz(s) + (2x+y/2-z)O2(g) -> x CO2 (g)+y H2O(l)
Since combustion reactions are exothermic (gives off heat); Δ Hcomb is negative.
SIGNIFICANCE:- Measure the heat producing capacity of the solid /liquid/gaseous fuels
INTRODUCTION:- During oxidization of many materials energy is released. The materials which produce significant amount energy are general identified as fuels.

50. FUELS:- The fuels generally implies hydrocarbon fuels. The fuels and their major uses are given in the table
FUELS USES
Solid
1.1 Coal(*)
a. Anthracite -steel making
b. Bituminous - electricity generation, industrial boilers and furnaces
c. Sub- Bituminous -do
d. Lignite - electricity generation
e. peat -do
1.2 woods - cooking, small industries
1.3 cow dung - cooking
1.4 agro-waste - industrial boiling
1.5 garbage-urban - electric power generation

51. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- FUEL USES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 2.liquid 2.1 crude oil (*) - electricity generation, industrial furnace and boilers. 2.2 crude oil derivatives
a.aviation turbine fuel (AFT) - gas turbines used in aviation and military aircraft, ships, Tanks. b. light diesel oil - tractors, Boilers and Furnaces. kerosene - furnace, cooking, boilers

52. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ GASEOUS USES 3.1 natural gas(*) and CNG)* - electricity Generation, furnaces, petrochemical and fertilizer production, boilers, cooking, automobiles and buses. 3.2 biogas - domestic cooking 3.3 liquefied petroleum gas LPG (*) - domestic and commercial cooking, Industrial furnace 3.4 Acetylene welding

63. A destructive-distillation method
for estimation of carbon residues
in fuels and lubricating oils. Also known as Conradson carbon test.

74. LAB REPORT WRITING