From field to factory: agronomy to starch and beyond

www.ciat.cgiar.org Science to cultivate change
From field to factory: agronomy to starch
and beyond
Tin Maung Aye
Friday, 26 August 2016
Cali, Colombia

Science to cultivate changewww.ciat.cgiar.org
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)
Northeast of Brazil
Africa
Asia
has been spreading throughout the Asia since beginning of 17th
century by Spanish merchants
o Reported in
Indonesia in
1740

Share of global cassava production – Asia is about 33%
• While initially an important food crop,
early stages of commercialisation
began during the late 19th Century
FAO Stats, 2016
Diverse cassava
production system
Cassava production in Asia

In Asia, cassava production is a very attractive option for
smallholders, many of whom have relatively few other
options for raising income and improving their livelihoods.

• ~8 million farmers grown cassava in Asia
More than 3 million farmers in Greater Mekong Subregion (Myanmar unknown)
Another 1.5 million households in southern China
Another 3 million households in Indonesia
• ~4 million ha
More than 1 million ha in each of Thailand and Indonesia
>500,000 ha in Vietnam
~ 500,000 ha in China
•> US$3.5 billion / year in GMS
Thailand: industry ~ US$1.5 billion
Vietnam: export revenue ~US$1.2 billion
Cambodia: export revenue ~US$ 800 million
Major impact on the livelihoods of the poor
~ US$1 billion/yr additional income due to higher yields

Country Land area
(‘000 ha)
Acid soil (‘000
ha)
% of total Area cassava
harvested
(‘000 ha)*
Production
(‘000
tons)*
Fresh root
yield
(t/ha)*
Cambodia 17,652 10,565 59.9 350 8,000 22.86
East Timor 1,1487 274 18.4 7 27 4.08
Indonesia 181,157 122,289 67.5 1,066 23,937 22.46
Lao PDR 23,080 19,009 82.4 45 1,120 25.17
Malaysia 32,855 26,185 79.7 3 45 14.52
Myanmar 65,755 40,642 61.8 49 630 12.86
Philippines 29,817 13,743 46.1 217 2,361 10.89
Thailand 51,089 38,630 75.6 1,385 30,228 21.82
Vietnam 32,549 23,317 71.6 544 9,743 17.90
Total 445,441 294,654 63 3,666 76,091 17
Land area and cassava production, harvested
area and yield in SE Asia (2013)
Sources: *FAOSTAT 2015

Cassava production systems in Asia have been developing
at a rapid rate due to a range of drivers including increasing regional
market integration (commodities, capital, and labor), changing labor
availability for agriculture, and government policies to encourage
subsistence agriculture to market-oriented agriculture.

Increased Production
Influence of new varieties?
• High and stable yields and high starch content
o Major impact on the growth of cassava production in SE Asia
o ↑ starch yield per ha
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Relative Change in Area, Yield, and Production for Asia
Production Index Area Index Yield Index
Yield increase:
• Mostly genetics
• Only partly agronomy/ fertilizers

Transformation of Cassava from a
Staple to Major Cash Crop
• Cassava has become a major
industrial raw material, providing
animal feed and starch

Cassava yields are usually low in
smallholder systems
For example: Average farmers yields in Vietnam for cassava (around 16 t
t/ha) are far below than achievable yields while Farmers in Tay Ninh
province of Vietnam can produce 40-50 t/ha.

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From field to factory:
Inputs
• Cassava
varieties
• Land and water
• Technology
• Labour
• Fertilizers
• Etc.
Outputs
• Leaves and
roots
• Dried chips
• pellets
• Starch
• By-products
• Etc.
Factories
• Animal feed
• Dried chip
• Ethanol
• Starch
• Etc.

0
30
45
15
60
75
Average Yield
- Climatic; Varietal; Crop management; Soil
related; Disease and Pests constraints
-Socio-economic limitation
Inputs
90
Biological Potential Yield under Optimum
Growing Condition
Yields of 30 tons of dry roots (70 – 100 tons of
fresh roots) per ha per year appear to be close to
the theoretical yield limit without
supplementary irrigation (Cock et al., 1979)
Comparative advantage of cassava is under
sub-optimal conditions (with good varieties
and agronomy)
Cassavarootyield(t/ha/year)
Achievable yield (Howeler, 2014 unpublished)
Asia 16 t/ha
Contribution of Various Inputs to Cassava Yield
46
35
World 11 t/ha
Yield potential

Source: Reinhardt, 2014 (unpublished)
10
18
22
38
25
Climate Varietal traits Crop management Soil related Pests and diseases
Yieldgap(%)
Among the various production constraints, the soil related
constraints are estimated to be the most important constraints in
Asia (Henry and Gottret, 1996; Howeler, 2014b unpublished)

Yield Gap of Cassava in Asia
Source: Reinhardt, 2014 (unpublished)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Weed control Planting material Planting time
Estimated Yield Loss by Crop Management

Cassava varieties/traits
 Adoption of new, higher yielding varieties is
still likely to increase cassava yields
A
B
A
B

Rayong 1
- Yield » 13.6 t/ha.
- Starch content » 18-24%
- Year » 1975

KU50
- High starch content » 22-
28%
- Year » 1992

Rayong 72
- Yield » 25 t/ha.
- Year » 2000

Rayong 9
- Recommend for ethanol production
(180 lit./ton)
- Year » 2006

HB60
- Yield » 30 t/ha.
- High starch content » 25-30%
- Year » 2003

Soil Texture Suitable varieties
Sandy / Loamy sand KU50; Huay Bong 60; Rayong 72
Sandy loam KU50; Huay Bong 60; Rayong 7; Rayong 9
Loamy clay
Huay Bong 80; Rayong 5; Rayong 7;
Rayong 11
Alkaline Rayong 5; Rayong 11
(กอบเกียรติ,2554 ดัดแปลงจากอัจฉรา แลคณะ, 2551)
Recommended cassava varieties in Thailand

Country Variety name
Year of
release
Clonal code or pedigree Location of
hybridization
Main features
Cambodia Malaysia 2) KM 94 = KU 50 KU high yield, high starch
China Nanzhi 188 1987 CM321-188 CIAT high yield
Nanzhi 199 1987 MPan19 CIAT high yield, high starch
GR 891 1998 MCol2215 CIAT high yield, high starch
GR 911 1998 MBra35xCM523-7 CIAT high yield
SC5 2002 ZM9057 CATAS high yield
SC 6 2002 OMR33-10-4 RFCRC high starch
SC 7 2005 ZM8639 CATAS high yield
SC 8 2005 CMR38-120-10 RFCRC high yield
Gui Re 3 2006 CMR 36-31-1 RFCRC high yield, high starch
Philippines VC-1 1986 CM323-52 CIAT high yield
VC-2 1988 CMC40 Brazil high yield, edible
VC-3 1990 CM3590-1 CIAT dual purpose
VC-4 1990 CM4014-3 CIAT high yield, dual purpose
VC-5 1990 MCol1684 Colombia high yield, bitter
PSB Cv-11 1995 CM3419-2A CIAT dual purpose
PSB Cv-12 1995 SM972-20 CIAT dual purpose
PSB Cv-15 1999 CM3422-1 CIAT dual purpose
PSB Cv-19 2000 SM808-1 CIAT mite resistant
NSIC Cv-22 2008 Kasetsart 50 KU high yield, high starch
Thailand Rayong 3 1983 MMex 55xMVen 307 CIAT high starch
Rayong 2 1984 MCol 113xMCol 22 CIAT for snack food
Rayong 60 1987 MCol 1684xRayong 1 RFCRC high early yield
Sriracha 1 1991 MCol 113xMCol 22xRayong 1 KU high DM
Rayong 90 1991 CMC 76xV 43=CMR 21-1 RFCRC high DM, rel. high yield
Kasetsart 50 1992 R1xR90=MKUC28-77-3 KU high yield, high DM
Rayong 5 1994 CMR27-77-10xR3=OMR25-105-112 RFCRC rel. high yield, high DM
Rayong 72 1999 Rayong 1xRayong 5 RFCRC high yield, drought tol.
Huay Bong 60 2003 R5xKasetsart50 = MKUC 34-114-206 KU high yield, high starch
Rayong 7 2005 CMR35-64-1=CMR30-71-25xOMR29-20-118 RFCRC high yield, high starch
Rayong 9 2005 CMR35-48-196=CMR31-19-23xOMR29-20-118 RFCRC good for ethanol production
Huay Bong 80 2008 R5xKasetsart50 KU high yield, high starch
Vietnam KM 60 1993 Rayong 60 RFCRC high early yield
KM 94 1995 Kasetsart 50 KU high yield, high starch
SM 937-26 1995 SM937-26 CIAT high yield, high starch
KM 95 1995 OMR33-17-15 RFCRC high yield; dual purpose
KM 95-3 1998 SM1157-3 RFCRC high yield; dual purpose
KM 98-7 1998 SM17-17-12 CIAT high yield
KM 98-1 1999 Rayong 1 x Rayong 5 RFCRC high yield; dual purpose
KM 140 2005 KM36xKM98-1 IAS high yield, dual purpose, early
KM 98-5 2005 Rayong 90xKM 98-1 IAS high yield, dual purpose, early
CIAT-related cassava varieties in Asia and their most important characteristics

Peter Jennings: Found semi-dwarf gene at IRRI (IR8)
Later moved to rice program at CIAT
One-off increase in rice yields in LAC with introduction of semi-
dwarf rice in favourable environments (~2t/ha)
No major increase in yield with the release of a further 400 semi-
dwarf varieties over next 30 years
Improve rice agronomy:
» time of seeding
» seedling density
» seed treatment to control insects
» weed control => additional 2t/ha
» fertilizer use
» irrigation management
Impact: Genetics + Agronomy
Example: Green Revolution Rice in LAC

The importance of good agricultural
practices (GAP) in cassava value chains
The GAP offers benefits to cassava
communities (i.e farmers, processors and
traders) to meet specific objectives of
production efficiencies, quality of products
(i.e starch), livelihoods, environmental
protection and the national economy as a
whole.
Adoption of GAP from field to factory will
help improve sustainable cassava cropping
systems and contribute to meeting national
and international environmental and social
development objectives.

China India Indonesia Philippines Thailand Vietnam
Labor Costs ($/ha) 167.40 421.70 185.37 218.80 167.18 213.60
Labor costs ($/manday) 1.86 1.29 1.11 2.00 3.24 1.78
-land preparation (mandays/ha) 7.5 1.5 45 8.1 2.4 5
-preparation planting material - 1.9 5 - - 5
-planting 15.0 14.8 15 9.4 9.1 10
-application fert. and manures 5.0 10.7 12 2.5 6.4 5
-application other chemicals - 0.3 - - - -
-irrigation - 51.9 - - - -
-weeding and hilling up 40.0 208.6 40 26.9 8.0 40
-harvesting (includes loading) 22.5 37.2 50 37.5 25.7 55
-transport and handling - - - 25 - -
Total (mandays/ha) 90.0 326.9 167 109.4 51.6 120
Other Costs ($/ha) 260.22 242.15 80.55 163.25 198.73 171.07
- Fertilizers and manures 130.11 159.39 79.44 53.75 61.97 80.36
- Planting material - 26.83 1.11 25.00 - -
- Other materials (herbicides, sacks) 37.17 2.23 - 20.00 25.84 -
-Transport of roots - - - - 70.38 -
-Land preparation by tractor 92.94 53.70 - 64.50 40.54 90.71
Total Variable Costs ($/ha) 427.62 663.85 265.92 382.05 365.91 384.67
Total Production Costs ($/ha) 520.56 900.35 312.59 382.05 414.80 444.67
Yield (t/ha) 20 40 20 25 23.40 25
Cassava production costs (US$ /ha) countries in Asia in 1998-2000

Land preparation
Methods of land preparation have a significant effect on the cassava root
yield but not on the root starch content (Jongruyasub, et. al., 2007)
Farmers should be able to select the most appropriate land preparation
practice for their situation

GAP in healthy seed materials
There is a need to foment the
use of healthy planting
materials through viable
sustainable seed system.
• Selection criteria (purity,
health of mother plant,
number of nodes and
internode length, size of
stakes, signs of illness)
• Recognizing signs and
symptoms of insects and
diseases

Plating methods
Mount, ridge and furrow
Plant population (10,000 -
18,000 per ha)
Planting on ridges is recommended during periods
of heavy rainfall, but planting without ridges is
better during dry periods as the ridged soil tends
to dry out faster.

Stake position
Vertical, Slant, Horizontal
In light textured sandy or sandy loam soil, cassava stakes can
best be planted in a vertical or inclined position, especially
when planting coincides with a dry period.
In heavy clay soil, it is advised to plant horizontally, as the
roots tend to grow closer to the soil surface, making
harvesting easier.

FAO soil group Approx. area of Acid soil
in SE Asia (M ha)
Fluvisols 18
Gleysols 18
Andosols 3
Cambisols 43
Podsols 3
Acrisols 163
Nitosols 15
Ferralsols 15
Histosols 17
Total 295 (64% of land)
Cassava can grow reasonably well on
soils that are too infertile for other
crops or soils that have been depleted
by other crops

Existing generalizations concerning cassava
are either false or half-truths.
1# Cassava does not need to apply
fertilizers
2# Cassava degrades the soils

P deficiency in Xieng Khouang, Laos
K deficiency in Kampong Cham, Cambodia
Identify major soil fertility problems

Balanced application of
N, P, K mineral fertilizers
will increase yields by 50 to 100% in many
areas and even more in poor soils.
The right rate of K application will also
increase the root starch content and starch
yields and even decrease the plant’s hydrogen
cyanide (HCN) content.
However, over fertilization of N may promote
leaf and stem growth without increased root
yields.
Long term NPK trial in Khon Kaen, Thailand.

Location/Soil/System N: P2O5: K2O (kg/ha)
Nanning, Guangxi, China 100:50:100
Danzhou, Hainan, China 200:100:200
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India 100: 50:100
Tamanbogo, Lampung, Indonesia / cassava mono crop 90:25:90
Tamanbogo, Lampung, Indonesia / intercropped cassava 90:50:90
Baybay, Leyte, Philippine 60:90: 60
Ubay, Bohol, Philippine 120:60:120
La Granja, Negros Occidental, Philippine 100: 50:50
Hung Loc Center, Dong Nai, Vietnam 80:40:80
Serdang, Malaysia / mineral soils 60: 30:160
Johor, Malaysia / peat soils 50:30:40
Optimum fertilizer application for cassava production in
various locations, soils, and systems in Asia

Right place to apply N, P and K basal fertilizer in the vertical planting and the
horizontal planting
4 R Nutrient Management: The right source
of plant nutrients at the right rate, the right time, and in
the right place are essential in the management of plant
nutrition to increase sustainability of cassava systems

Nutrients removed with the harvested
leaves, roots and stems
Material N P K Mg Ca S
Leaves* 20-30 2-3 13-20 2.5-3.0 10-15 1.5-2
Stems* 5-8 1-2.5 13-20 1.5-2.0 7-10 1-2
Nutrient contents of cassava leaves and stems (kg/t)

A combination of 80 kg N, 20 kg P and 80 kg K per hectare
plus returning plant tops can achieve up to 40 t/ha of
cassava root yields
Make recommendations for improvements
Crop Product
Yield
t ha-1
Total uptake
(above-ground biomass)
kg ha-1
Removal
(root yield)
Kg t-1
N P K Ca Mg S N P K Ca Mg S
Cassava Root 20 95 15 91 50 15 10 1.7 0.5 2.5 0.4 0.2 0.2
Targeted cassava root yield Fertilizer recommendation rates (kg ha-1)
N P2O5 K2O MgO S
Low (12 t ha-1) 40 20 20 5 5
High (20 t ha-1) 200 80 100 20 20
Source: Dierolf et. al., 2001

Right time of plant nutrients to be applied to cassava according to the
various fertilizer sources

Pedro A. Sanchez, 2015: The plant
doesn’t care whether the nutrients
come from fertilizer solutions, SOM
mineralization, or decomposition of
manures, roots or crop residues
Roots take up the nutrients in their ionic
form: NO3-, NH4+, H2PO-, K+, Ca++, etc.
However, the soil does care, because
organic inputs provide carbon, the
energy source for soil microorganisms
for more efficient nutrient cycling while
mineral fertilizers do not contain carbon
Plant Nutrition is better with organic fertilizers

Treatment Cassava
yield
(t/ha)
Dry soil
loss (t/ha)
Plowing+disking, no ridges, no fertilizer 15 20
Plowing+disking, no ridges, with fertilizer 21 10
Plowing+disking, contour ridges, with fertilizer 22 4
Plowing+disking, no ridges, with fertilizer, peanut intercrop 23 6
Plowing+disking, no ridges, with fertilizer, Crotalaria intercrop
for mulching
22 10
Plowing only, no ridges, with fertilizer 19 11
Plowing only, no ridges, with fertilizer; vetiver grass hedgerows 23 3
Effect of various cultural practiceson the average dry
soil loss due to erosion and the root yield of cassava grown on 12% slope at
the Guangxi Subtropical Crop Research Institute (GSCRI), from 1993 to 1995
(3 years).

It is important that how to encourage farmers to
prevent soil nutrient depletion and soil losses by
erosion from their cassava fields.

Effects of fertilization of mother
plants on the yield of daughter
plants (CIAT, 1981)
Fertilizer treatment
N-P-K (kg/ha)
Fresh root yield
(t/ha)
0-0-0 19.1
100-87-125 26.2

“In a healthy environment, cassava plants have
proper nutrition from the soil and can take up a
balance of vital nutrients. Plant health is then
encouraged, and the whole ecosystem can fight,
depressing diseases and pests.”
Mealybug infestation Witches broom infestation

Cassava can grow in areas with 400
mm of rainfall a year, once
established
Maximum root yields in Thailand
were correlated with rainfall totaling
about 1 700 mm
Integrated water
management
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Rainfed Irrigation
Effect of irrigation on
cassava root yield , India
(t/ha)
Source: Nayar et. al., 1985

 Combination of most appropriate ways of cultural
(i.e. land preparation, intercropping), mechanical,
chemical and biological control, etc.
Integrated weed management
Control weeds during the first
three months of growth

Intercropping: control weeds but also
intensify land resource, stabilize cash flow
and prevent soil erosion

Post-harvest physiological
deterioration (PPD) of cassava
Deterioration is observed as blue-black vascular
streaking
PPD is a major constraint, and has been strong
associated with mechanical damage which occurs
during the harvesting and handling operations
Environmental growth conditions have a significant
effect on the crop’s development

Harvesting Tool
Improve the efficiency of labour
and time
15-20 labors could harvest one ha
of cassava while a harvesting tool
could harvest 1 ha in 15 - 20 hrs

Appropriate mechanization in cassava
systems
Improve the efficiency of labour and time
Harvesting equipment
Planting machine

Cassava: Focus and Challenges
• Agronomy
o Fertilizer
o Intercropping and erosion control
o Seasonality / bulking … crop growth model
• Seed system:
o Propagation systems: rapid proposition - petiole,
micro-stake, tissue culture
o On-farm seed multiplication

There are still a lot of research questions we need to
answer together with local farmers, extensionistes and
researchers, local authorities and private sector.
Farmer participatory research and extension
approaches are important
Conclusions

Capacity Building of National Agriculture Research and
Extension Staffs and Farmers
Due attention is also focused on the best way to manage
other issues, such as socio-economic, ethnic and political
situations, which have to be considered to ensure both
appropriateness and adoption for improving cassava
value chains through good agronomic practices

Agronomic practices must be - Technically reliable,
Economically feasible, Socially acceptable, and
Environmentally sustainable!

In SE Asia, improved agronomy and integrated soil
research techniques which CIAT has improved in
past/will continue in future to boost sustainable
cassava production.

Eco-efficient agriculture to improve livelihoods in Asia
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