Fine structure of gene
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The document discusses several key aspects of genes and genetic material: - Genes are composed of DNA and control biochemical reactions by regulating enzyme production. - Viruses can contain either DNA or RNA as their genetic material. - Genes have properties of mutation and recombination that produce variation. - Genes are made up of coding and non-coding regions like promoters, enhancers, introns, and exons.
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Fine structureof gene,allelic complementation,and split gene
Fine structureof gene,allelic complementation,and split gene Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh (Guj.), India
This document discusses several key concepts related to gene structure:
1. Genes in eukaryotes contain both coding (exon) and non-coding (intron) sequences. Introns are removed during RNA processing to form mRNA.
2. Benzer performed fine structure analysis of phage T4 genes which demonstrated that genes can undergo intragenic recombination, or crossing over within the gene. This established that genes have an internal structure smaller than previously believed.
3. Split genes were discovered, which have interrupted sequences (introns) between coding sequences (exons). RNA splicing removes introns to form mature mRNA from split genes.Modern gene concept
This document discusses different concepts of genes including classical concepts like alleles and modern concepts like jumping genes, overlapping genes, split genes, nested genes, and fusion genes. It then focuses on jumping genes or transposons, providing details on their discovery by Barbara McClintock in maize in the 1940s. Transposons are able to move from one location in the chromosome to another. The document discusses types of transposons like IS-elements, P-elements, and retrotransposons. It also discusses the significance of transposons and examples of transposon systems in maize like the Ac-Ds system.
Mutation & its detection
1. The document discusses mutation and its detection. It defines mutation as heritable changes in the genome excluding those from other organisms.
2. It describes different types of mutations such as spontaneous versus induced, forward versus reverse, nuclear versus cytoplasmic, and more.
3. Methods of detecting mutations in prokaryotes and eukaryotes are described. For prokaryotes, techniques like replica plating and the Ames test are used. For eukaryotes, each individual must be examined for mutant phenotypes.
Complementation test
This document presents information on complementation tests. It defines complementation tests as a method used to determine if two mutations are in the same gene or different genes. It explains that if the mutations are complementary (in different genes), the offspring will show the parental phenotypes, but if they are not complementary (in the same gene), the offspring will show a new phenotype. Three examples of using complementation test results to determine the number of genes involved are provided. The document concludes by citing a reference for more information on assigning mutations to genes using complementation tests.
Maternal effects
Maternal effects are the influences of a mothers genotype on the phenotype of her offspring. It results from the asymmetric contribution of the female parent to the development of zygotes.
In terms of chromosomal genes, both male and female parents contribute equally to the zygote. The female parent contributes to the zygotes initial cytoplasm and organelles. Sperm rarely contribute anything other than chromosomes. Therefore zygotic development begins within a maternal medium and hence the maternal cytoplasm directly affects zygotic development.
Complementation test
In this presentation, I'll try to explain the complementation test. This test is important for assessment of functional allelism.
Molecular Basis of Mutation
The document summarizes a case study where the whole genomes of six gamma-irradiated rice plants were sequenced to identify mutations induced by radiation exposure. High-quality sequencing data was obtained and analyzed to detect single nucleotide substitutions, short insertions/deletions, and structural variations compared to the reference genome. The identified mutations were further validated using PCR analysis. The study demonstrates how whole genome sequencing can be used to characterize mutations induced in plants by gamma radiation exposure.
Transposable elements in Maize And Drosophila
Transposable elements are mobile DNA sequences found in genomes of all organisms. Barbara McClintock discovered transposable elements called Ac and Ds in maize that cause color patterns in corn kernels. Her discovery showed that genes can move within genomes. Experiments with Drosophila revealed another transposable element called P elements that cause hybrid dysgenesis. Transposable elements can provide genetic variation and flexibility that influences evolution.
Recommended
Fine structureof gene,allelic complementation,and split gene
Fine structureof gene,allelic complementation,and split gene Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh (Guj.), India
This document discusses several key concepts related to gene structure:
1. Genes in eukaryotes contain both coding (exon) and non-coding (intron) sequences. Introns are removed during RNA processing to form mRNA.
2. Benzer performed fine structure analysis of phage T4 genes which demonstrated that genes can undergo intragenic recombination, or crossing over within the gene. This established that genes have an internal structure smaller than previously believed.
3. Split genes were discovered, which have interrupted sequences (introns) between coding sequences (exons). RNA splicing removes introns to form mature mRNA from split genes.Modern gene concept
This document discusses different concepts of genes including classical concepts like alleles and modern concepts like jumping genes, overlapping genes, split genes, nested genes, and fusion genes. It then focuses on jumping genes or transposons, providing details on their discovery by Barbara McClintock in maize in the 1940s. Transposons are able to move from one location in the chromosome to another. The document discusses types of transposons like IS-elements, P-elements, and retrotransposons. It also discusses the significance of transposons and examples of transposon systems in maize like the Ac-Ds system.
Mutation & its detection
1. The document discusses mutation and its detection. It defines mutation as heritable changes in the genome excluding those from other organisms.
2. It describes different types of mutations such as spontaneous versus induced, forward versus reverse, nuclear versus cytoplasmic, and more.
3. Methods of detecting mutations in prokaryotes and eukaryotes are described. For prokaryotes, techniques like replica plating and the Ames test are used. For eukaryotes, each individual must be examined for mutant phenotypes.
Complementation test
This document presents information on complementation tests. It defines complementation tests as a method used to determine if two mutations are in the same gene or different genes. It explains that if the mutations are complementary (in different genes), the offspring will show the parental phenotypes, but if they are not complementary (in the same gene), the offspring will show a new phenotype. Three examples of using complementation test results to determine the number of genes involved are provided. The document concludes by citing a reference for more information on assigning mutations to genes using complementation tests.
Maternal effects
Maternal effects are the influences of a mothers genotype on the phenotype of her offspring. It results from the asymmetric contribution of the female parent to the development of zygotes.
In terms of chromosomal genes, both male and female parents contribute equally to the zygote. The female parent contributes to the zygotes initial cytoplasm and organelles. Sperm rarely contribute anything other than chromosomes. Therefore zygotic development begins within a maternal medium and hence the maternal cytoplasm directly affects zygotic development.
Complementation test
In this presentation, I'll try to explain the complementation test. This test is important for assessment of functional allelism.
Molecular Basis of Mutation
The document summarizes a case study where the whole genomes of six gamma-irradiated rice plants were sequenced to identify mutations induced by radiation exposure. High-quality sequencing data was obtained and analyzed to detect single nucleotide substitutions, short insertions/deletions, and structural variations compared to the reference genome. The identified mutations were further validated using PCR analysis. The study demonstrates how whole genome sequencing can be used to characterize mutations induced in plants by gamma radiation exposure.
Transposable elements in Maize And Drosophila
Transposable elements are mobile DNA sequences found in genomes of all organisms. Barbara McClintock discovered transposable elements called Ac and Ds in maize that cause color patterns in corn kernels. Her discovery showed that genes can move within genomes. Experiments with Drosophila revealed another transposable element called P elements that cause hybrid dysgenesis. Transposable elements can provide genetic variation and flexibility that influences evolution.
Extra nuclear inheritance
Cytoplasmic or extranuclear inheritance involves the transmission of traits controlled by genes located outside the cell nucleus, such as in mitochondria or chloroplasts. This form of inheritance does not follow Mendel's laws and instead is maternally inherited, with traits expressed based on the phenotype of the female parent. Examples discussed in the document include mitochondrial inheritance in humans, cytoplasmic factors influencing disease susceptibility in mice, and chloroplast genes controlling leaf color in plants.
Tetrad analysis
Tetrad analysis is a technique used to study genetics in lower eukaryotes like fungi and algae. These organisms undergo meiosis and form haploid spores called tetrads. Analyzing the patterns of genes in the tetrads can determine if genes are linked and calculate the distance between them. Examples given are yeast and Neurospora fungi. Neurospora ordered tetrads allow direct mapping of genes by examining the patterns of alleles in ascus spores. The document provides examples of analyzing unordered and ordered tetrads to determine linkage and map distance between genes.
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This document summarizes maternal inheritance of chloroplast DNA. It discusses how chloroplasts are inherited in the variegated four o' clock plant Mirabilis jalapa. Flowers on green branches produce only green offspring, while flowers on white branches produce only white offspring, demonstrating maternal inheritance of chloroplasts. Flowers on variegated branches produce offspring with mixed phenotypes, due to segregation of chloroplast types in the egg cell cytoplasm. This cytoplasmic inheritance demonstrates that in some plants, chloroplast DNA is inherited maternally rather than paternally.
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The concept of the gene has evolved over time based on experimental evidence:
1. Early views were that a gene equals one character (Mendel) or metabolic function (Garrod).
2. Experiments in the 1940s-50s showed genes encode enzymes or polypeptides.
3. Benzer's experiments in the 1950s-60s demonstrated that genes have fine structure and recombination can occur within genes, not just between genes. The nucleotide, not the gene, is the basic unit of genetic structure.
4. Complementation tests show a gene is the basic unit of function, though it can be divided into smaller functional units (cistrons). Alternative splicing further complicates the
Gene concept
This document discusses different concepts of genes including:
1. Classical concepts viewed genes as units of heredity, transmission of characters, and mutation.
2. Molecular concepts define genes as the entire nucleic acid sequence required for protein synthesis, including coding and regulatory regions.
3. Genes have a fine structure and can be divided into functional units called cistrons based on complementation testing of mutants.
Mitochondrial genome
The human mitochondrial genome is much smaller than the nuclear genome, consisting of 16,569 base pairs. It contains 37 genes, 13 of which code for proteins involved in cellular respiration. Mitochondrial DNA is inherited solely from the mother and encodes for transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA and proteins that are critical subunits of the oxidative phosphorylation complexes. The human mitochondrial genome has a highly condensed structure with minimal non-coding regions and some overlapping genes. It also differs slightly from the standard genetic code.
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Molecular basis of mutations
This document summarizes molecular basis of mutations. It defines mutations as changes in genetic information and describes different types of mutations including point mutations, chromosomal mutations, germline mutations and somatic mutations. It also discusses various mutagens responsible for mutations like chemical mutagens such as alkylating agents, base analogs and reactive oxygen species, and physical mutagens like UV radiation and ionizing radiation. The mechanisms of different mutagens and types of mutations based on their phenotypic effects are also summarized.
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The document discusses the fine structure of genes. It describes the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene structure. Prokaryotic genes are simple and uninterrupted, while eukaryotic genes contain introns that separate coding exons. Introns have significance as they allow for alternative splicing and exon shuffling, increasing protein diversity. The document also provides history on the discovery of genes and defines key components like promoters, terminators, and regulatory elements.
repetitive and non repetitive dna.pptx
1. Eukaryotic DNA contains repetitive and non-repetitive segments. Repetitive DNA makes up around 50% of the human genome and consists of sequences that are present in copies numbering over a million.
2. Repetitive DNA is divided into highly, moderately, and uniquely repetitive sequences based on copy number. Highly repetitive sequences are present in over 100,000 copies and include satellite and centromeric DNA. Moderately repetitive sequences have between 100-10,000 copies, like ribosomal RNA genes.
3. Non-repetitive or unique sequences make up around 50% of the human genome and contain protein-coding genes and other sequences required for gene expression that generally exist in only
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Basics of Undergraduate/university fellows
Transcription is more complicated in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes because
eukaryotes possess three different classes of RNA polymerases and because of the
way in which transcripts are processed to their functional forms.
More proteins and transcription factors are involved in eukaryotic transcription.
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Gene families and clusters
Gene families are sets of similar genes formed by duplication of an original gene. A gene cluster is a subgroup of a gene family where the genes are located near each other on a chromosome. Examples discussed include haemoglobin gene clusters, histone gene clusters, and ribosomal RNA gene clusters. Haemoglobin genes are expressed at different developmental stages. Myoglobin is related to haemoglobin and encodes oxygen transport in muscle. Histone genes encode structural proteins that package DNA into nucleosomes. Ribosomal RNA genes are present in high copy numbers and encode components of ribosomes.
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Nucleosomes
Nucleosomes are the fundamental repeating subunits of eukaryotic chromatin that package DNA into a compact structure. They are composed of 146 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins, resembling beads on a string. This represents the first order of DNA compaction. Higher orders of compaction involve the nucleosomes winding further to form solenoid fibers, scaffold loops, chromatids, and finally full chromosomes. Nucleosomes allow the long DNA molecules to fit within cell nuclei while also regulating genetic expression.
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1) Eukaryotic genes can be organized in complex ways, including overlapping genes where coding sequences partially overlap, and split genes where coding sequences are interrupted by non-coding intron sequences.
2) Overlapping genes were discovered in bacteriophage X174, where the coding sequences of genes D and E overlap but are translated in different reading frames.
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1. DNA contains genes that encode instructions for proteins; during transcription, genes are copied into mRNA which is then translated by ribosomes into proteins.
2. In eukaryotes, mRNA must carry DNA information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis, since DNA is in the nucleus but protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm.
3. Transcription involves copying a gene into mRNA, which then directs ribosomes during translation to synthesize the encoded protein according to the genetic code where RNA codons specify amino acids.
Principles of Bacterial Genetics org.pptx
- Griffith's experiments in 1928 provided early evidence that DNA was the genetic material by showing that killed virulent bacteria could transform living nonvirulent bacteria into virulent pathogens when mixed.
- Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty then showed through selective destruction of DNA, RNA, or protein that transformation was blocked only when the DNA was destroyed, demonstrating that DNA carried the genetic information.
- Hershey and Chase later showed through radioactive labeling that T2 bacteriophage DNA, not its protein coat, entered E. coli cells during infection and directed the production of new phage particles, proving that DNA is the genetic material of viruses as well.
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Cytoplasmic or extranuclear inheritance involves the transmission of traits controlled by genes located outside the cell nucleus, such as in mitochondria or chloroplasts. This form of inheritance does not follow Mendel's laws and instead is maternally inherited, with traits expressed based on the phenotype of the female parent. Examples discussed in the document include mitochondrial inheritance in humans, cytoplasmic factors influencing disease susceptibility in mice, and chloroplast genes controlling leaf color in plants.
Tetrad analysis
Tetrad analysis is a technique used to study genetics in lower eukaryotes like fungi and algae. These organisms undergo meiosis and form haploid spores called tetrads. Analyzing the patterns of genes in the tetrads can determine if genes are linked and calculate the distance between them. Examples given are yeast and Neurospora fungi. Neurospora ordered tetrads allow direct mapping of genes by examining the patterns of alleles in ascus spores. The document provides examples of analyzing unordered and ordered tetrads to determine linkage and map distance between genes.
chloroplast genome ppt.
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and algae that conduct photosynthesis. They contain their own DNA known as the chloroplast genome, which is typically 100-200kb in size and encodes genes for photosynthesis. The chloroplast genome is highly conserved and maternally inherited. It has been used for phylogenetic studies and shows potential for genetic engineering due to high transgene expression and maternal inheritance that prevents gene flow to other species.
C value paradox
This document discusses the C-Value Paradox, which is the observation that there is no correlation between the complexity of an organism and the amount of DNA (C-value) in its genome. The document provides examples showing that C-values, or the amount of DNA per haploid cell, can vary widely both within and across species, from 105 base pairs in mycoplasma to over 109 base pairs in mammals. While complexity tends to increase with higher C-values, exceptions exist, demonstrating there is no direct linear relationship between genome size and organism complexity. The term "C-value" refers to the haploid DNA content of a species.
Maternal inheritance of chloroplasts dna
This document summarizes maternal inheritance of chloroplast DNA. It discusses how chloroplasts are inherited in the variegated four o' clock plant Mirabilis jalapa. Flowers on green branches produce only green offspring, while flowers on white branches produce only white offspring, demonstrating maternal inheritance of chloroplasts. Flowers on variegated branches produce offspring with mixed phenotypes, due to segregation of chloroplast types in the egg cell cytoplasm. This cytoplasmic inheritance demonstrates that in some plants, chloroplast DNA is inherited maternally rather than paternally.
Genetic fine str. analysis & complementation
The concept of the gene has evolved over time based on experimental evidence:
1. Early views were that a gene equals one character (Mendel) or metabolic function (Garrod).
2. Experiments in the 1940s-50s showed genes encode enzymes or polypeptides.
3. Benzer's experiments in the 1950s-60s demonstrated that genes have fine structure and recombination can occur within genes, not just between genes. The nucleotide, not the gene, is the basic unit of genetic structure.
4. Complementation tests show a gene is the basic unit of function, though it can be divided into smaller functional units (cistrons). Alternative splicing further complicates the
Gene concept
This document discusses different concepts of genes including:
1. Classical concepts viewed genes as units of heredity, transmission of characters, and mutation.
2. Molecular concepts define genes as the entire nucleic acid sequence required for protein synthesis, including coding and regulatory regions.
3. Genes have a fine structure and can be divided into functional units called cistrons based on complementation testing of mutants.
Mitochondrial genome
The human mitochondrial genome is much smaller than the nuclear genome, consisting of 16,569 base pairs. It contains 37 genes, 13 of which code for proteins involved in cellular respiration. Mitochondrial DNA is inherited solely from the mother and encodes for transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA and proteins that are critical subunits of the oxidative phosphorylation complexes. The human mitochondrial genome has a highly condensed structure with minimal non-coding regions and some overlapping genes. It also differs slightly from the standard genetic code.
Holliday Model of DNA Recombination
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Cot curve
Cot value and Cot Curve analysis is a technique for measuring DNA complexity based on renaturation kinetics. DNA is denatured and allowed to reanneal, with larger DNA taking longer. Cot value accounts for DNA concentration, time, and buffer effects, representing repetitive sequences - lower Cot means more repeats. Examples show bacteria have nearly all single-copy DNA, while mouse has varying proportions of single-copy, middle repetitive, and highly repetitive sequences. Cot curve analysis provides information on genome size, complexity, and proportions of sequence types.
Molecular basis of mutations
This document summarizes molecular basis of mutations. It defines mutations as changes in genetic information and describes different types of mutations including point mutations, chromosomal mutations, germline mutations and somatic mutations. It also discusses various mutagens responsible for mutations like chemical mutagens such as alkylating agents, base analogs and reactive oxygen species, and physical mutagens like UV radiation and ionizing radiation. The mechanisms of different mutagens and types of mutations based on their phenotypic effects are also summarized.
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The document discusses the fine structure of genes. It describes the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene structure. Prokaryotic genes are simple and uninterrupted, while eukaryotic genes contain introns that separate coding exons. Introns have significance as they allow for alternative splicing and exon shuffling, increasing protein diversity. The document also provides history on the discovery of genes and defines key components like promoters, terminators, and regulatory elements.
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1. Eukaryotic DNA contains repetitive and non-repetitive segments. Repetitive DNA makes up around 50% of the human genome and consists of sequences that are present in copies numbering over a million.
2. Repetitive DNA is divided into highly, moderately, and uniquely repetitive sequences based on copy number. Highly repetitive sequences are present in over 100,000 copies and include satellite and centromeric DNA. Moderately repetitive sequences have between 100-10,000 copies, like ribosomal RNA genes.
3. Non-repetitive or unique sequences make up around 50% of the human genome and contain protein-coding genes and other sequences required for gene expression that generally exist in only
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Basics of Undergraduate/university fellows
Transcription is more complicated in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes because
eukaryotes possess three different classes of RNA polymerases and because of the
way in which transcripts are processed to their functional forms.
More proteins and transcription factors are involved in eukaryotic transcription.
RNA editing
RNA editing is a post-transcriptional process that makes discrete changes to RNA sequences. There are three main types of RNA editing: cytosine to uracil deamination, adenine to inosine deamination, and guide RNA-mediated insertion/deletion of uridine bases. Cytidine deamination is site-specific and involves enzymes like cytidine deaminase. Adenine deamination occurs in RNA secondary structures and involves enzymes like ADAR. Guide RNA editing involves hybridization of RNA to guide RNA, cleavage by an endonuclease, addition of uridine by TuTase, and ligation. RNA editing increases protein diversity and is essential for organelle development in eukaryotes.
Gene families and clusters
Gene families are sets of similar genes formed by duplication of an original gene. A gene cluster is a subgroup of a gene family where the genes are located near each other on a chromosome. Examples discussed include haemoglobin gene clusters, histone gene clusters, and ribosomal RNA gene clusters. Haemoglobin genes are expressed at different developmental stages. Myoglobin is related to haemoglobin and encodes oxygen transport in muscle. Histone genes encode structural proteins that package DNA into nucleosomes. Ribosomal RNA genes are present in high copy numbers and encode components of ribosomes.
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Nucleosomes
Nucleosomes are the fundamental repeating subunits of eukaryotic chromatin that package DNA into a compact structure. They are composed of 146 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins, resembling beads on a string. This represents the first order of DNA compaction. Higher orders of compaction involve the nucleosomes winding further to form solenoid fibers, scaffold loops, chromatids, and finally full chromosomes. Nucleosomes allow the long DNA molecules to fit within cell nuclei while also regulating genetic expression.
Genetics ppt
Benzer conducted experiments to study intragenic recombination within the rII gene of bacteriophage T4. He isolated rare recombinants that arose from exchanges between DNA of co-infecting phages. This allowed him to map mutations within the rII gene at high resolution. He determined that rII mutations occurred in two complementation groups, rIIA and rIIB, representing two different genes. Through deletion mapping, Benzer was able to localize many rII mutations to a short region within gene A or B. His work established the concept of the cistron as the smallest genetic unit.
Second genetic code overlapping and split genes
1) Eukaryotic genes can be organized in complex ways, including overlapping genes where coding sequences partially overlap, and split genes where coding sequences are interrupted by non-coding intron sequences.
2) Overlapping genes were discovered in bacteriophage X174, where the coding sequences of genes D and E overlap but are translated in different reading frames.
3) Split genes have exons, which are the coding sequences included in mRNA, and introns, which are intervening non-coding sequences not included in mRNA. Split genes were first observed in animal viruses in 1977.
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TRANSCRIPTION & POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL MODIFICATIONS
Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template. In prokaryotes, a single RNA polymerase synthesizes all RNA, while eukaryotes have multiple RNA polymerases. The enzyme binds to promoter regions on DNA and uses one strand as a template to make complementary RNA. Primary transcripts in eukaryotes undergo processing like capping, polyadenylation, and splicing to produce mature, functional RNAs that can be translated or act as non-coding RNAs. Transcription involves initiation, elongation, and termination and can be inhibited by various antibiotics that target bacterial or eukaryotic RNA polymerases.
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Transcription
1. DNA contains genes that encode the information for synthesizing proteins. The genes contain base sequences that are transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA), which then directs protein synthesis.
2. During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to promoter regions on DNA and synthesizes mRNA complementary to the template DNA strand. The mRNA is then processed and modified before being translated into protein.
3. Transcription is regulated through control regions in DNA that bind transcription factors, inducing or repressing transcription depending on the factor. This regulates the expression of genes and allows control of protein synthesis.
Genome organization and gene expression and its regulation
this is very informative and highly explained silde about this topic. this slide very easy in language and easy to understand.
THE GENETIC CODE.pptx
The genetic code is a nonoverlapping code, with each amino acid plus polypeptide initiation and termination specified by RNA codons composed of three nucleotides.
Transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.pdf
1. Transcription is the process of copying DNA into mRNA, which carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm for protein production. RNA polymerase copies one DNA strand into a complementary mRNA strand.
2. In prokaryotes, RNA polymerase initiates transcription by binding to promoter sequences upstream of genes. It then elongates the mRNA as it moves along the DNA template. Termination occurs via rho-dependent or rho-independent signals.
3. In eukaryotes, transcription requires transcription factors to recruit RNA polymerase to the promoter. The initial pre-mRNA product undergoes processing before becoming a mature mRNA for translation.
Fine Structure of Gene- Biotechnology, Microbiology PPT Download
Fine Structure of Gene- Biotechnology, Microbiology PPT, PDF
Download the presentation
SYNOPSIS
Introduction
History of gene
Definition of gene
Gene structure
Prokaryote gene
Eukaryote gene
Significance of introns.
References
Gene expression
The document discusses gene expression and RNA. It describes that gene expression involves two steps - transcription of DNA into mRNA in the nucleus, and translation of mRNA into proteins by ribosomes. There are three main types of RNA - mRNA, rRNA and tRNA. rRNA makes up the majority of RNA and is a component of ribosomes. tRNA helps translate mRNA codons into amino acids during protein synthesis. The genetic code uses three nucleotide mRNA codons to specify the twenty amino acids used to build proteins. Reverse transcriptase was an important discovery as it showed RNA can be converted to DNA, modifying the central dogma that DNA does not influence proteins.
61 genetoprotein2008
This document describes the process by which genetic information stored in DNA is used to produce proteins. It explains that DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is then translated on ribosomes to produce proteins based on the mRNA's codon sequence. Key steps covered include transcription, splicing, modifications to mRNA, transfer RNA carrying amino acids, the genetic code, and protein production on ribosomes. The flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to proteins is known as the central dogma of molecular biology.
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Genome organization and gene expression and its regulation
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Fine structure of gene
- 2. Inherited determinant of the phenotypic iscalledgene. In 1928 belling suggested that the chromomers ,which appear like a series of granules on the chromosomes, might be the genes.
- 3. Gene control biochemical reaction by controlling the production of enzymes. Biochemical reaction in vivo occurs as a series discrete, stepwise reaction. A single enzyme specifically catalyzes each reaction.
- 4. The genes of almost all organisms are DNA. This is shown by following observation The DNA content of all cells of a species of an organism is constant .It is halved in the gametes. Cells of similar hereditary origin have DNA of similar composition .The relative amounts of the four nucleotides are constant. Gene mutation can be explained on the basis of alteRNAtion of DNA structure.
- 5. Most plant viruses and some animal viruses contain RNA as the genetic material In the reo group of viruses and in the wound tumour virus the RNA is present in the double stranded form. In the tobacco mosaic virus(tmv), a tobacco virus ,influenza type a virus and bacterial viruses f2,r17 and ms2 the RNA is single stranded.
- 6. The gene has a mutational property as evidence by the presence and occurrence of allele producing different phenotypes. The gene has a recombination property, as evidenced by the observation that it can separate itself from the other genes through crossing over
- 9. Length : 10 ̴ 200 bp Features : lack of conservation. Functions : pass through the ribosome Hold the first coding segment Promote the entry of mRNA into protein synthesis
- 10. Length : 50 ̴ 600 bp Feature : variation in length AATAAA (ATTAAA) Function : threads through the ribosome’s Hold the mRNA stability Termination sites Indicate the site for attachment of the poly (A) tail
- 11. ENHANCER : located at about thousands of bp from the gene PROMOTER : Basal promoter : TATA box , CAAT box or GC box, located within 20-30 bp from start point. Upstream promoter : located at about 100 bp upstream from start point
- 12. PROMOTER REGION : Initiate transcription Recognition point for RNA polymerase. Several hundred nucleotides in length immediately adjacent to the gene they regulate
- 13. TATA box : Common to almost all eukaryotic mRNA promoter Consensus sequence : TATAA/TA 20-30 bases upstream of the start point
- 14. Roles of TATA box: Bind RNA polymerase Initiate transcription Recognized and bound by a general initiation factor TFIID
- 15. Intron and exon : Lack of correspondence between the DNA and mRNA Intron : do not encode mRNA Exon : encode mRNA. Intron : Donot encode for mRNA Length : 50 ̴ 30000 bp (average : 200 – 400 bp) Present in pre-mRNA only
- 16. Initiator and terminator : Initiator → exons + introns → terminator Length : 300 ̴ 1500 bp Initiator : ATG(CTG) Terminator : TGA , TAA OR TAG.
- 17. Exon : Encode for mRNA Four types of exons : ◦ Initial exon. ◦ InteRNAl exon. ◦ Terminal exons. ◦ Single exon(intronless genes)
- 18. Some genes encode for protein , others encode for tRNA , rRNA etc Genes code for mRNA , mRNA code for protein The sequence of genes encoding for protein directly determines their functions (amino acid sequence) Genetic code is highly conserved Some variation exist - mutations of DNA lead to loss of function of protein , some may have diseases.