1. Discourse analysis is the study of language beyond the sentence level and how language shapes identities, interactions, and realities. It examines how language reflects and creates culture. 2. Key aspects of discourse analysis include cohesion, coherence, speech events, turn-taking, and Grice's cooperative principle of quantity, quality, relevance, and manner. Discourse analysis also considers hedges, background knowledge, schemas, and scripts. 3. The term "discourse analysis" was first introduced by Zelling Harris in 1952 to describe the analysis of connected speech and writing beyond a single sentence.

2. Presented to: Sir Waleed Butt
Presented By: Huma Saleem
Ayesha Afzal
Mehwish Anwar
Sidra Mubeen
SamIa Munawar

3. Discourse is...
• How language reflects reality.
• How language creates reality.
• How language shapes our identities
and interactions.
• How language is used as a tool to
control people.
• Discourse is basically, “Language
beyond the sentence.”

4. Discourse
Analysis
Definition
of Discourse
Differences
between text
and discourse
Notion of
Discourse
Analysis
Devices for
Discourse
Cohesion
Coherence
Parallelis
m
Speech
Event
Turn-
taking
Coversational
Analysis
Co-operative
principle Maxim
Quantity
Quality
Relevance
Manner
Hedges
Background
Knowledge
Scheme
Script
Conclusion

5. • The term discourse analysis was first
employed by Zelling Harris as the name for ‘ a
method for the analysis of the connected
speech or writing for continuing descriptive
linguistics beyond the limit of a single
sentence at a time and for correlating culture
and language’ ( Harris 1952)
DA & Zelling Harris..
•The term discourse analysis was first
employed by Zelling Harris as the name for ‘ a
method for the analysis of the connected
speech or writing for continuing descriptive
linguistics beyond the limit of a single
sentence at a time and for correlating culture
and language’ ( Harris 1952)

6. 1. Mohammad s. Zeidan (2004). Discourse is modes of speaking
and writing which involve participants in adopting a particular
attitude towards areas of socio-cultural activity.
2. Widdowson (1973). Discourse is viewed as a process. Meaning is
derived through the reader’s interaction with the text.
3. Cook (1989). Discourse as streches of language perceived to be
meaningful , unified, and purposive.

8. • Discourse analysis, or text linguistics
“is the study of the relationship
between language and the contexts in
which language is used. It deals with
how sentences in spoken and written
language form larger meaningful
units.”

10. 1.Cohesion 2.Coherence 3.Parallelism
4.Speech
Event
5. Turn- Taking
6.Conversational
Analysis
7. Co-
operative
principle
8. Hedges
9.
Background
Knowledge

11. Cohesion is grammatical relationship between parts of
the sentences essential for its interpretation.
Example :
My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it
by saving every penny he could. That car would be
worth a fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to
help pay for my college education. Sometimes I think I’d
rather have the convertible.
 The words above is general connection by number of
word “money” & Time (once,sometimes,
nowadays)

12. Coherence (everything fitting together well) is the
relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a
discourse or of the sentences in a text.
Example:
Betty : That’s the telephone
Mike : I’m in bath
Betty : O.K

13. Example:
“The woman who has bad-face and the woman who has
beautiful-face have the same human right”
 In that sentence the woman who has bad-face and
the woman who has beautiful-face both of them have
the same human right.
Parallelism is the usage of repeating words
and forms to give pattern and rhythm to a
passage in literature.

14. Conti..
• When there is food in the house, what matter if a
guest arrives? When there is faith, what is
death? (Pashto proverb)
This is a good example of ‘parallelism’ in Proverb. It
is widely used in epic poems and we can also see it
in quotes of many great men. As in following:
•“Ask not what your country can do for you; ask
what you can do for your country.” —John F.
Kennedy

15. Speech event is about taking part in
conversation, or any other speech event
Instance of a social practice in which discourse
plays a primary role
example: argument, debate, lecture, chat,
interview, various types of discussions.

17. Turn- Taking is some style and different strategies of participant. In
conversation of these strategies seem to be the source of what is
some-times described by participants. The participants
characterized as ‘rude’ or ‘shy’ in this way may simply be adhering
to slightly different conventions of turn-taking.
Example: I mean his other… emm his later films were much
more… err really more in the romantic style and that was more
what he was… you know… emm best at doing

18. Conversation Analysis is activity in which, for the most part, two or
more people take turns at speaking. Typically, only one person
speaks at a time and there tends to be an avoidance of silence
between speaking turns. (This is not true in all situations or
societies). If more than one participant tries to talk at the same
time, one of them usually stops.
Example:
A: Didn’t you know where he was
going?
B: [he was going to
shopping center for a moment.
A: [Ok. But he must’ve been
there by two p.m.

19. Co-operative principle is stated in the following way: “make
your conversational contribution such as is required , at the
stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or
direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.”
See at the next slide.....

22. Maxim of quantity is make your contribution as
informative as is required but not more , or less than is
required.
Example:
( 1) The Blind is the worker squeeze.
( 2) a person who cannot see is
really the worker squeeze.

23. Maxim of quality is do not say that which you believe to be false
or for which you lack adequate evidence
Example
A : how much/many maxim cooperation
according to Grice?
B : According to book Grice which I read,
there is four maxim in principle work is of equal.
A : What kind of Maxim that’s all?
B : They are: Maxim Amount, maxim quality
, maxim relevance and maxim way of ( execution).

24. Maxim of relevance is be relevant
Example:
A : There is somebody at the door
B : I’m in the bath.

25. Maxim of manner is be clear . brief and
orderly
Example:
A: Let’s stop and get something to eat.
B: Okey, but not M-C-D-O-N-A-L-D-S

27. Hedges is used certain types of expressions, called hedges, to
show that we are concerned about following the maxims while
being co-operative participants in conversations.
Example :
“Are you sure...?” (someone’s expression
cause distrust for something)
“Oh... I’m sorry to hear that” (someone’s
expression cause sad feeling)

28. Background Knowledge is the processes involved
which presented readers with a short text, one
sentence at a time .
Example :
John was on his way to school last Friday
He was really worried about the math lesson

29. • Schemas is a general
term for a conventional
knowledge structure that
exists in memory. We were
using our conventional
knowledge of what a school
classroom is like, or
‘classroom schema’, as we
tried to make sense of the
previous example.
• Script is similar in many
ways to a schema. A
script is essentially a
dynamic schema. That is
,instead of the set of
typical fixed features in a
schema , a script has a
series of conventional
actions that take place

30. Trying not to be out of the office for long, Suzy went into the
nearest place, sat down and ordered an avocado sandwich. It was
quite crowded, but the service was fast, so she left a good tip. Back
in the office, things were not going well.
Scheme :
1. The woman who went to
restaurant is Suzy
2. Suzy was an office girl
3. She went to the
restaurant.
4. She ate an avocado
sandwich.
5. Finally she is back to the
office.
Script :
1. We would assume that
Suzy opened a door to get
2. Into the restaurant,
3. That there were tables
there,
4. That she ate the sandwich,
5. Then she paid for it, and so
on. (back to the office)
Check this following example by scheme and script :

31. References:
• http://www.literarydevices.com/parallelism/
• George Yule (2006-2010), ‘The Study of Language’ 4th
edition . Pp. 141-151