Krashen's hypotheses propose that language is acquired subconsciously through meaningful interaction and exposure to comprehensible input, and that learning involves conscious grammatical rules which act as an editor. Vygotsky's theory emphasizes that cognitive development occurs through social interaction and language learning. Errors are an important part of the learning process as learners experiment, and differences between L1 and L2 acquisition include age of learning, context, and ways of learning.

1. EXPOSURE AND FOCUS ON
FORM
ACQUIRING A LANGUAGE

2. STEPHEN KRASHEN’S
HYPOTHESES

3. The Acquisition / Learning
Distinction Hypothesis
Adults have two distinct and independent ways of
developing competence in L2.
ACQUISITION. Subconscious process.
L2 is picked up automatically.
LEARNING. Conscious knowledge of
grammar rules.
Error correction.
Explicit instruction.

4. The Natural Order Hypothesis
Grammar structures are acquired in a natural
predictable order.
L2 learning order is different from L1 order.

5. The Monitor Hypothesis
Acquisition is the sole initiator of all second-
language utterances.
Acquisition: Responsible for fluency.
Learning: Functions as a monitor for output.

6. The Monitor Hypothesis
MONITOR = Accuracy / Fluency
NO MONITOR= Fluency / Accuracy

7. The Input Hypothesis
Language is acquired only when students are
exposed to comprehensible input.
Comprehensible input= i+1. Language containing
structures that are “a little beyond” a current level of
competence.
Language is comprehensible through the use of
context, knowledge of the world, and other
extralinguistic cues.
Language students hear or read should contain
language they already know as well as language they
have not yet seen.

8. The Input Hypothesis
Silent period.
A period of time before the acquirer actually starts
to speak.
During this time, acquirers are building up
competence by listening and understanding.

9. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
Affective conditions have to be optimal.
Acquirers:
Are motivated.
Have self confidence and good self image;
Have a low level of anxiety.

10. The Affective Filter Hypothesis

11. LEV SEMIONOVICH
VYGOTSKY’S THEORY
OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT

12. Theory of Cognitive Development
Cognitive development is an outgrowth of social
development through interaction with others.
Learning is necessary for development, development
is stimulated by learning, and learning and
development both occur in the context of a social
situation mediated by language.
Learning takes place in the context of a social
experience.
Higher mental functions develop through participation
in social activities.

13. Theory of Cognitive Development
Learning awakens a variety of internal
developmental processes that are able to operate
only when the learner is interacting with people in
his or her own environment or in cooperation with
peers.

14. Grammatical Competence
To be effective users of language, learners
need to achieve harmony between form,
meaning, and use.
FORM = SYNTAX
MEANING = SEMANTICS
USE = PRAGMATICS

15. Grammatical Competence
SYNTAX:
Structure, focuses on accuracy
SEMANTICS:
Lexical meaning
Grammatical meaning
PRAGMATICS:
When or why is structure used? / appropriateness

16. Grammatical Competence
Form and meaning are interconnected,
grammatical choice has an effect on meaning.
Use deals with choices made when using the
functions in communication.
I’m having lunch with James
vs
I’m going to have lunch with James

17. EXPOSURE AND FOCUS ON
FORM
We do not learn a foreign language best
through learning grammar and translating.
Nor do we learn by constantly practising until
we form habits or just by communicating. We
learn by picking up language, interacting and
communicating and focusing on form.

18. THE ROLE OF ERROR

19. The Role of Error
Is it part of the teacher’s job to make sure that
everything said in class is correct all the time?

20. The Role of Error
What is the most important mistake here?
PLEASE, WILL YOU TO SHOW ME COATS?

21. The Role of Error
What do you think this mistakes have in
common from the point of view of the
learner?
He had been their for several days.
She left school two years ago and now work in a
factory.
My father was a farmer. he wanted me to be a
doctor.

22. The Role of Error
Most likely, anyone who writes sentences
such as these could correct the mistakes in
them if they were pointed out.
If a mistake can be self-corrected, we shall call it a
slip.

23. The Role of Error
Although the people are very nice, but I don’t like
it here.
That was the first English film which I have
understood it.
It is fortunate the fact that she loves you.

24. The Role of Error
If a student cannot self-correct a mistake, but the
teacher thinks that the class is familiar with the
correct form, we shall call it an error.

25. The Role of Error
Students make mistakes when they try to
mean something but have no idea of how to
structure that meaning correctly in English.
I wish I went my grandmother’s house last
summer.
This, no, really, for always my time…and then I
happy.

26. Types of Errors
INTERFERENCE.
Influence from the learner’s first language.
I AM AGREE WITH YOU.
PUT ATTENTION.

27. Types of Errors
DEVELOPMENTAL ERROR.
Learners make errors because they are unconsciously
working out and organising language. These errors
reflect the learner’s creative capability of using
language.
ENGLISH WELL TALKING (Outside a shop).
IN CASE OF FIRE DO YOUR UTMOST TO ALERT HOTEL PORTER
(At a hotel).

28. Types of Errors
OVERGENERALISATION
Learners (specially children) wrongly apply a rule for
one item of the language to another item.
I GOED TO SCHOOL.
I SAW MANY WOMANS.

29. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN L1
AND L2

30. Differences between L1 and L2
AGE
L1 LEARNING L2 LEARNING
• Starts since we are born to • Usually at primary school
young childhood. and/or secondary school. It can
also start or continue in
adulthood.

31. Differences between L1 and L2
WAYS OF LEARNING
L1 LEARNING L2 LEARNING
• By exposure. • Sometimes through exposure but often
• By wanting and needing to communicate, by being taught specific language.
high motivation. • With strong, little or no motivation.
• Through interaction with family and • Through interaction with a teacher and
friends. sometimes with classmates.
• By talking about things present in the • Often by talking about life outside the
child’s surroundings. classroom
• By listening to and taking in language for • Often by needing to produce language
many months before using it. (silent soon after it has been taught.
period) • Often by using language in controlled
• By playing and experimenting with new practice activities.
language.

32. Differences between L1 and L2
CONTEXT
L1 LEARNING L2 LEARNING
• The child hears the language around • The learner is not exposed to the L1 very
him/her all the time. much – often no more than about three
• Family and friends talk to and interact hours per week.
with the child a lot. • Teachers usually simplify their language.
• The child has lots of opportunities to • Teachers vary in the amount they praise
experiment with language. or encourage learners.
• Caretakers often praise and encourage • The learner receives little individual
the child’ use of language. attention from the teacher.
• Caretakers simplify their speech to the • Teachers generally correct learners a lot.
child.
• Caretakers rarely correct the form and
accuracy of what the child says in an
obvious way.

33. Points to consider
Foreign language learners need to be exposed to a
rich variety of language, use it to communicate
and interact, and have opportunities to focus on
form. This helps to make the circumstances of L2
learning more similar to those in l1 learning and
allows L2 students to use their abilities to process
the language.
Motivation is very important in language learning,
so we should do all we can to motivate learners.
Learners are different from one another, we
should try to personalise our teaching to match
their learning needs and preferences.

34. Points to consider
Learners may find a silent period useful, but some
learners, especially adults, may not.
We should encourage learners to use English as
much as possible in their out-of-class time to
increase their exposure to it.
We should try to simplify our language to a level
that learners can learn from, and avoid correcting
them too much. They need to build up their
fluency, motivation and confidence.
In the classroom we should try to praise learners
and give them as much individual attention as we
can.