This document summarizes the findings of a European Power Quality Survey conducted between 2005-2006. It interviewed representatives from key industrial sectors across 8 European countries to understand the economic impacts of poor power quality.
The study found that poor power quality, such as voltage dips, interruptions and harmonics, results in annual losses estimated at over €150 billion for the sectors surveyed. Dips and interruptions accounted for around 60% of losses. Losses were higher in manufacturing industries compared to services sectors.
Regression analysis indicated power quality related wastage was approximately 4% of annual turnover for industry and 0.14% for services. The document provides detailed methodology used to calculate different types of power quality costs from direct financial losses
The document discusses power flow analysis, which determines the voltage, current, real power, and reactive power at points in an electrical network under normal operating conditions. It provides three key points:
1. Power flow analysis is important for planning, operations, and future expansion of power systems by studying the effects of new loads, generators, or transmission lines.
2. The analysis involves classifying buses as slack, generator, or load buses and formulating the network equations based on the bus admittance matrix.
3. Solving the load flow problem involves determining the complex voltages across all buses given the network configuration and bus demands. This provides critical information for monitoring overloads and voltage deviations.
The document discusses swing angle-clearance combinations specified for transmission lines in India. It analyzes how the combinations impact tower configuration and whether all specified combinations are necessary. The analysis shows that for most line voltages, only two judiciously selected swing angle-clearance combinations are needed to adequately determine optimal tower configuration. The remaining extra combinations specified do not impact tower design and could be removed without risking reliability. Using only two critical combinations could simplify transmission line design processes.
This guide presents a methodology based on standard PN-IEC 60354 to check overloading capacity of transformers. Main changes versus standard PN-71/E-81000 are discussed and step by step examples are given. An essential advantage of the recommended methods of verification of overloading capacity of transformers is that the size and cooling modes of transformers are considered.
Four quadrant metering can be used to understand individually or collectively:
Real Power consumed by the end user
Apparent Power delivered by the utility
Real Power delivered to the utility by an end user’s generation source
Apparent Power generated by the end user’s generation source
Having these measurements allows for the calculation of Reactive Power, VA and VARS as well as providing kWh for billing purposes.
The document discusses short circuit currents and testing of transformers to withstand short circuits. It defines short circuits and short circuit current, and differentiates short circuits from overloads. Symmetrical and asymmetrical short circuit currents are calculated. Short circuit tests are done on distribution and power transformers to demonstrate their ability to withstand thermal and dynamic effects of short circuits without damage. The document outlines test procedures, current calculations, and setup for short circuit testing in the lab.
“MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF DC-DC CONVERTER FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM” Final...8381801685
This project portrays a comparative analysis of DC-DC Converters for Renewable Energy System. The electrolysis method which increases the hydrogen production and storage rate from wind-PV systems. It has been proved that DC-DC converter with transformer has the desirable features for electrolyser application. The converter operates in lagging PF mode for a very wide change in load and supply voltage variations, thus ensuring ZVS for all the primary switches. The peak current through the switches decreases with load current.This paper portrays a comparative analysis of DC-DC Converters for Renewable Energy System . The simulation and experimental results show that the power gain obtained by this method clearly increases the hydrogen production and storage rate from wind-PV systems. It has been proved that DC-DC converter with transformer has the desirable features for electrolyser application. Theoretical predictions of the selected configuration have been compared with the MATLAB simulation results. The simulation and experimental results indicate that the output of the inverter is nearly sinusoidal. The output of rectifier is pure DC due to the presence of LC filter at the output. It can be seen that the efficiency of DC-DC converter with transformer is 15% higher than the converter without transformer.
HVDC Transmission System Today's Upgrading TechnologyDixit Patel
High Voltage Direct Current Transmission line is highly use in today's generation for long power transmission system because it has many great advantages over HVAC Transmission system. It's requires low transmission line space and more space we can use around transmission line over HVAC transmission line.
This document discusses testing of transformers. It provides an overview of transformers and their functions in transmission and distribution of electrical energy. It then describes various routine, type, and special tests performed on transformers, including winding resistance measurement, voltage ratio measurement, no-load loss measurement, load loss measurement, insulation resistance measurement, and dielectric tests. It also discusses short-circuit testing procedures and criteria. Temperature rise testing and its limits are also summarized.
The document discusses power flow analysis, which determines the voltage, current, real power, and reactive power at points in an electrical network under normal operating conditions. It provides three key points:
1. Power flow analysis is important for planning, operations, and future expansion of power systems by studying the effects of new loads, generators, or transmission lines.
2. The analysis involves classifying buses as slack, generator, or load buses and formulating the network equations based on the bus admittance matrix.
3. Solving the load flow problem involves determining the complex voltages across all buses given the network configuration and bus demands. This provides critical information for monitoring overloads and voltage deviations.
The document discusses swing angle-clearance combinations specified for transmission lines in India. It analyzes how the combinations impact tower configuration and whether all specified combinations are necessary. The analysis shows that for most line voltages, only two judiciously selected swing angle-clearance combinations are needed to adequately determine optimal tower configuration. The remaining extra combinations specified do not impact tower design and could be removed without risking reliability. Using only two critical combinations could simplify transmission line design processes.
This guide presents a methodology based on standard PN-IEC 60354 to check overloading capacity of transformers. Main changes versus standard PN-71/E-81000 are discussed and step by step examples are given. An essential advantage of the recommended methods of verification of overloading capacity of transformers is that the size and cooling modes of transformers are considered.
Four quadrant metering can be used to understand individually or collectively:
Real Power consumed by the end user
Apparent Power delivered by the utility
Real Power delivered to the utility by an end user’s generation source
Apparent Power generated by the end user’s generation source
Having these measurements allows for the calculation of Reactive Power, VA and VARS as well as providing kWh for billing purposes.
The document discusses short circuit currents and testing of transformers to withstand short circuits. It defines short circuits and short circuit current, and differentiates short circuits from overloads. Symmetrical and asymmetrical short circuit currents are calculated. Short circuit tests are done on distribution and power transformers to demonstrate their ability to withstand thermal and dynamic effects of short circuits without damage. The document outlines test procedures, current calculations, and setup for short circuit testing in the lab.
“MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF DC-DC CONVERTER FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM” Final...8381801685
This project portrays a comparative analysis of DC-DC Converters for Renewable Energy System. The electrolysis method which increases the hydrogen production and storage rate from wind-PV systems. It has been proved that DC-DC converter with transformer has the desirable features for electrolyser application. The converter operates in lagging PF mode for a very wide change in load and supply voltage variations, thus ensuring ZVS for all the primary switches. The peak current through the switches decreases with load current.This paper portrays a comparative analysis of DC-DC Converters for Renewable Energy System . The simulation and experimental results show that the power gain obtained by this method clearly increases the hydrogen production and storage rate from wind-PV systems. It has been proved that DC-DC converter with transformer has the desirable features for electrolyser application. Theoretical predictions of the selected configuration have been compared with the MATLAB simulation results. The simulation and experimental results indicate that the output of the inverter is nearly sinusoidal. The output of rectifier is pure DC due to the presence of LC filter at the output. It can be seen that the efficiency of DC-DC converter with transformer is 15% higher than the converter without transformer.
HVDC Transmission System Today's Upgrading TechnologyDixit Patel
High Voltage Direct Current Transmission line is highly use in today's generation for long power transmission system because it has many great advantages over HVAC Transmission system. It's requires low transmission line space and more space we can use around transmission line over HVAC transmission line.
This document discusses testing of transformers. It provides an overview of transformers and their functions in transmission and distribution of electrical energy. It then describes various routine, type, and special tests performed on transformers, including winding resistance measurement, voltage ratio measurement, no-load loss measurement, load loss measurement, insulation resistance measurement, and dielectric tests. It also discusses short-circuit testing procedures and criteria. Temperature rise testing and its limits are also summarized.
This document discusses harmonic analysis and power quality problems caused by harmonics. It defines harmonics as voltages or currents present at integer multiples of the fundamental power system frequency. Nonlinear loads can generate harmonics. Any periodic waveform, such as a distorted voltage or current waveform, can be expressed as the sum of sinusoidal components using a Fourier series. Common harmonic sources include utilities, synchronous generators, transformers, power electronic devices, and other nonlinear loads. Harmonics can cause problems in motors, transformers, capacitors, cables, and other electrical equipment by inducing extra losses and heating. The document discusses different harmonic measurement techniques and various methods for mitigating harmonics, including passive and active filters, increasing the pulse number of converters, phase shifting
The document discusses the mechanical design of overhead power lines. It describes the main components of overhead lines which include conductors, supports, insulators, and cross arms. Conductors carry electric power and are made of materials like copper, aluminum, and steel that have high conductivity and strength. Supports can be wooden poles, steel poles, or lattice towers and must withstand mechanical loads. Insulators provide insulation between conductors and supports to prevent leakage currents. The document also covers factors that affect overhead line design like line voltage, conductor spacing, and methods to reduce corona effects like increasing conductor size.
CPC100 + TD12 Tan Delta Test Report for 132kV CT.SARAVANAN A
This document summarizes the results of three tan delta tests performed on a cable sample using a CPC test device with serial number FC628G. Each test was performed on February 16, 2021 at different times and measured capacitance, dissipation factor, and other parameters at voltages of 2 kV, 5 kV, and 10 kV. All tests showed similar results and passed without overload or other issues.
The document discusses cable ampacity calculations to determine required cable sizes based on project standards and design criteria. It provides tables with ampacity values for different cable types, sizes, and installation methods based on temperature limits of the insulation material. It also includes correction factors to adjust ampacity values for varying ambient air and ground temperatures, soil conditions, circuit configurations and more. The purpose is to calculate cable impedance values including resistivity of conductors and temperature correction factors.
Chapter 4 mechanical design of transmission linesfiraoltemesgen1
This chapter discusses the mechanical design of transmission lines. It covers various topics such as types of conductors, line supports, spacing between conductors, and sag-tension calculations. The key conductors mentioned are copper, aluminum, and steel. Wooden poles, steel tubular poles, reinforced concrete poles, and steel towers are described as the main types of line supports. The document also discusses the effects of wind and ice loading on transmission lines. Sag-tension calculations are explained using catenary curve equations.
True power factor (PF) and displacement power factor (DPF) both measure the efficiency of power delivery to a load but in different ways. DPF only considers the fundamental 60 Hz portion of the voltage and current waveforms, so it is not affected by harmonics. PF is the ratio of real power to apparent power and takes into account any harmonic distortion, making it a better measure of overall system efficiency. DPF should be used to evaluate reactive power issues and power factor correction, while PF accounts for the increased burden from harmonics and is useful for quantifying total system performance. When DPF and PF differ, harmonics are present requiring further investigation.
Transmission lines have four parameters that characterize them: resistance, inductance, capacitance, and conductance. These distributed parameters determine the power carrying capacity and voltage drop across the line. Short lines only consider the series resistance and inductance, while medium and long lines must also account for the distributed shunt capacitance. The resistance of overhead transmission lines is affected by factors like skin effect, temperature, bundling of conductors, and proximity effect between phases.
This document describes an experiment on distribution system design. It discusses the design of feeders and distributors, and calculating voltage drops in distributors. There are different types of feeders - radial, parallel, loop, and interconnected network systems. Kelvin's law provides a method to calculate the most economical conductor size by equating the annual cost of energy losses to the annual interest and depreciation costs. However, Kelvin's law has limitations including inaccurate energy loss calculations and changing costs over time.
These slides present an introduction to load flow analysis for distribution system. Later the detail algorithm, matlab coding and application to IEEE radial distribution system will be subsequently provided.
The document discusses shunt reactors used in power systems. Shunt reactors are installed to reduce grid voltage during off-peak periods when excess reactive power leads to high voltages. They absorb reactive power through magnetizing currents, thereby reducing voltage. The document recommends installing 25 additional shunt reactors of 63 MVAR each in the southern grid to maintain voltages between 416-420 kV during off-peak hours. It provides background on why reactors are needed and describes the basic operating principles and components of shunt reactors.
Long & Short Interruptions: Interruptions – Definition – Difference between failures,
outage, Interruptions – causes of Long Interruptions – Origin of Interruptions – Limits for the
Interruption frequency – Limits for the interruption duration – costs of Interruption –
Overview of Reliability evaluation to power quality, comparison of observations and
reliability evaluation.Short interruptions: definition, origin of short interruptions, basic principle, fuse saving,
voltage magnitude events due to re-closing, voltage during the interruption, monitoring of
short interruptions, difference between medium and low voltage systems. Multiple events,
single phase tripping – voltage and current during fault period, voltage and current at post
fault period
The document summarizes power quality issues including defects like under voltage, over voltage, dips, surges, blackouts, harmonics, and transients. It discusses who is responsible for ensuring power quality and some typical problems caused by defects. Solutions mentioned include surge protection, UPS systems, generators, filters, proper wiring, and load zoning. Assuring high quality power is challenging as electricity must flow continuously from generators to consumers via a shared infrastructure.
This document provides guidelines for testing and commissioning VSC HVDC systems. It describes the typical stages of commissioning including factory tests, pre-commissioning tests, subsystem tests, and system tests. Subsystem tests include testing cabling, equipment, controls, and auxiliary systems. System tests involve high voltage energization, terminal tests without power transmission, transmission tests with power flow, and tests of operations and interactions with the AC network. The document outlines procedures, acceptance criteria, and key challenges for commissioning VSC HVDC projects. Coordinating commissioning with stakeholders and determining an appropriate subset of factory tests to repeat on-site are discussed.
This document provides a guide for loading 65°C rise mineral-oil-immersed distribution and power transformers. It combines and replaces three previous guides on loading different types of transformers. The guide provides general recommendations and equations for calculating transformer loading and temperatures during overloads. It aims to accurately determine safe loading levels based on specific transformer characteristics.
This document discusses procedures for locating cable faults and types of cable testing. It describes why cable testing is important to determine the condition of power cables and systems. The main types of cable testing discussed are high voltage DC withstand testing, partial discharge testing using acoustic equipment, and dielectric response testing measuring factors like dissipation factor, DC leakage current, and recovery voltage. The document also outlines procedures for locating cable faults, including fault indication, insulation testing, cable route tracing, and precise fault location. Various cable testing methods and their purposes are explained.
Extra high voltage long ac transmission linesShivagee Raj
From economical point of view designing of transmission line system is very important in the electricity supply system. Extra High Voltage Transmission Lines are best suited for transmission of bulk power.
This document discusses fault analysis in HVDC and HVAC transmission lines. It begins with a brief history of HVDC systems and then covers the basics of HVDC transmission including components and types. The main sections compare HVAC and HVDC systems, discuss fault analysis in both, and describe various protection methods. HVDC transmission is described as advantageous for long distance bulk power transmission, underground/underwater cables, and asynchronous grid interconnection. Protection of AC and DC lines includes overcurrent, overvoltage, and DC reactor methods.
This document discusses computer control of power systems and SCADA systems in India. It provides statistics on India's power sector, including installed capacity, sources of energy, transmission losses, and peak load. It also outlines challenges in power systems like storage limitations and varying demand. The roles of an energy control center are summarized, including load forecasting, capacity planning, system monitoring, and economic dispatch. Finally, it introduces the hierarchy of power system operation in India and key components of SCADA systems, such as sensors, RTUs, master units, communication links, and software.
This document discusses the history and development of high voltage engineering. It begins with early experiments with static electricity by ancient Greeks. Key figures who contributed include Franklin, Faraday, Tesla, and Edison. Faraday's law established that a magnetic field can induce current in a wire. Advances allowed longer distance power transmission. Challenges included developing high voltage insulation. Numerical methods like finite element analysis are now used to model electric field distributions in complex high voltage components.
Load forecasting aims to predict electricity demand with varying levels of accuracy over different timescales. Short-term load forecasting for the next day can predict load within 1-3% accuracy, while long-term forecasting for the next year is less accurate due to uncertain weather. Load forecasting is important for utilities to plan operations and pricing. Key factors influencing load include weather, customer class, time of day, and special events. Common forecasting methods use statistical and machine learning techniques to model load as a function of these influencing factors.
Collecting Economic Data in Power Quality SurveyLeonardo ENERGY
Highlights:
* Presents an approach to facilitate economic data collection.
* Defines Power Quality (PQ) as the extent to which the electrical energy available at the point of use is compatible with the needs of the load equipment connected.
* Lack of compatibility may lead to end user equipment ceasing, operating erratically or incorrectly, or at reduced efficiency.
* Discusses the many parameters necessary for compatibility.
* Presents a checklist for checking the completeness of the methodology.
Electricity_Reliability_031611 Galvin Power ORGRonnie Waterman
The document discusses the importance of reliable electricity and outlines recommendations for improving reliability metrics and standards in the United States. It notes that power outages can have significant costs and consequences, including fatalities, lost productivity, and equipment damage. While some utilities have improved reliability without increasing costs, the U.S. generally lags global competitors in terms of reliability according to metrics like SAIDI and SAIFI. The recommendations suggest establishing consistent reliability metrics, targets, and reporting to identify areas for improvement and benchmark performance.
This document discusses harmonic analysis and power quality problems caused by harmonics. It defines harmonics as voltages or currents present at integer multiples of the fundamental power system frequency. Nonlinear loads can generate harmonics. Any periodic waveform, such as a distorted voltage or current waveform, can be expressed as the sum of sinusoidal components using a Fourier series. Common harmonic sources include utilities, synchronous generators, transformers, power electronic devices, and other nonlinear loads. Harmonics can cause problems in motors, transformers, capacitors, cables, and other electrical equipment by inducing extra losses and heating. The document discusses different harmonic measurement techniques and various methods for mitigating harmonics, including passive and active filters, increasing the pulse number of converters, phase shifting
The document discusses the mechanical design of overhead power lines. It describes the main components of overhead lines which include conductors, supports, insulators, and cross arms. Conductors carry electric power and are made of materials like copper, aluminum, and steel that have high conductivity and strength. Supports can be wooden poles, steel poles, or lattice towers and must withstand mechanical loads. Insulators provide insulation between conductors and supports to prevent leakage currents. The document also covers factors that affect overhead line design like line voltage, conductor spacing, and methods to reduce corona effects like increasing conductor size.
CPC100 + TD12 Tan Delta Test Report for 132kV CT.SARAVANAN A
This document summarizes the results of three tan delta tests performed on a cable sample using a CPC test device with serial number FC628G. Each test was performed on February 16, 2021 at different times and measured capacitance, dissipation factor, and other parameters at voltages of 2 kV, 5 kV, and 10 kV. All tests showed similar results and passed without overload or other issues.
The document discusses cable ampacity calculations to determine required cable sizes based on project standards and design criteria. It provides tables with ampacity values for different cable types, sizes, and installation methods based on temperature limits of the insulation material. It also includes correction factors to adjust ampacity values for varying ambient air and ground temperatures, soil conditions, circuit configurations and more. The purpose is to calculate cable impedance values including resistivity of conductors and temperature correction factors.
Chapter 4 mechanical design of transmission linesfiraoltemesgen1
This chapter discusses the mechanical design of transmission lines. It covers various topics such as types of conductors, line supports, spacing between conductors, and sag-tension calculations. The key conductors mentioned are copper, aluminum, and steel. Wooden poles, steel tubular poles, reinforced concrete poles, and steel towers are described as the main types of line supports. The document also discusses the effects of wind and ice loading on transmission lines. Sag-tension calculations are explained using catenary curve equations.
True power factor (PF) and displacement power factor (DPF) both measure the efficiency of power delivery to a load but in different ways. DPF only considers the fundamental 60 Hz portion of the voltage and current waveforms, so it is not affected by harmonics. PF is the ratio of real power to apparent power and takes into account any harmonic distortion, making it a better measure of overall system efficiency. DPF should be used to evaluate reactive power issues and power factor correction, while PF accounts for the increased burden from harmonics and is useful for quantifying total system performance. When DPF and PF differ, harmonics are present requiring further investigation.
Transmission lines have four parameters that characterize them: resistance, inductance, capacitance, and conductance. These distributed parameters determine the power carrying capacity and voltage drop across the line. Short lines only consider the series resistance and inductance, while medium and long lines must also account for the distributed shunt capacitance. The resistance of overhead transmission lines is affected by factors like skin effect, temperature, bundling of conductors, and proximity effect between phases.
This document describes an experiment on distribution system design. It discusses the design of feeders and distributors, and calculating voltage drops in distributors. There are different types of feeders - radial, parallel, loop, and interconnected network systems. Kelvin's law provides a method to calculate the most economical conductor size by equating the annual cost of energy losses to the annual interest and depreciation costs. However, Kelvin's law has limitations including inaccurate energy loss calculations and changing costs over time.
These slides present an introduction to load flow analysis for distribution system. Later the detail algorithm, matlab coding and application to IEEE radial distribution system will be subsequently provided.
The document discusses shunt reactors used in power systems. Shunt reactors are installed to reduce grid voltage during off-peak periods when excess reactive power leads to high voltages. They absorb reactive power through magnetizing currents, thereby reducing voltage. The document recommends installing 25 additional shunt reactors of 63 MVAR each in the southern grid to maintain voltages between 416-420 kV during off-peak hours. It provides background on why reactors are needed and describes the basic operating principles and components of shunt reactors.
Long & Short Interruptions: Interruptions – Definition – Difference between failures,
outage, Interruptions – causes of Long Interruptions – Origin of Interruptions – Limits for the
Interruption frequency – Limits for the interruption duration – costs of Interruption –
Overview of Reliability evaluation to power quality, comparison of observations and
reliability evaluation.Short interruptions: definition, origin of short interruptions, basic principle, fuse saving,
voltage magnitude events due to re-closing, voltage during the interruption, monitoring of
short interruptions, difference between medium and low voltage systems. Multiple events,
single phase tripping – voltage and current during fault period, voltage and current at post
fault period
The document summarizes power quality issues including defects like under voltage, over voltage, dips, surges, blackouts, harmonics, and transients. It discusses who is responsible for ensuring power quality and some typical problems caused by defects. Solutions mentioned include surge protection, UPS systems, generators, filters, proper wiring, and load zoning. Assuring high quality power is challenging as electricity must flow continuously from generators to consumers via a shared infrastructure.
This document provides guidelines for testing and commissioning VSC HVDC systems. It describes the typical stages of commissioning including factory tests, pre-commissioning tests, subsystem tests, and system tests. Subsystem tests include testing cabling, equipment, controls, and auxiliary systems. System tests involve high voltage energization, terminal tests without power transmission, transmission tests with power flow, and tests of operations and interactions with the AC network. The document outlines procedures, acceptance criteria, and key challenges for commissioning VSC HVDC projects. Coordinating commissioning with stakeholders and determining an appropriate subset of factory tests to repeat on-site are discussed.
This document provides a guide for loading 65°C rise mineral-oil-immersed distribution and power transformers. It combines and replaces three previous guides on loading different types of transformers. The guide provides general recommendations and equations for calculating transformer loading and temperatures during overloads. It aims to accurately determine safe loading levels based on specific transformer characteristics.
This document discusses procedures for locating cable faults and types of cable testing. It describes why cable testing is important to determine the condition of power cables and systems. The main types of cable testing discussed are high voltage DC withstand testing, partial discharge testing using acoustic equipment, and dielectric response testing measuring factors like dissipation factor, DC leakage current, and recovery voltage. The document also outlines procedures for locating cable faults, including fault indication, insulation testing, cable route tracing, and precise fault location. Various cable testing methods and their purposes are explained.
Extra high voltage long ac transmission linesShivagee Raj
From economical point of view designing of transmission line system is very important in the electricity supply system. Extra High Voltage Transmission Lines are best suited for transmission of bulk power.
This document discusses fault analysis in HVDC and HVAC transmission lines. It begins with a brief history of HVDC systems and then covers the basics of HVDC transmission including components and types. The main sections compare HVAC and HVDC systems, discuss fault analysis in both, and describe various protection methods. HVDC transmission is described as advantageous for long distance bulk power transmission, underground/underwater cables, and asynchronous grid interconnection. Protection of AC and DC lines includes overcurrent, overvoltage, and DC reactor methods.
This document discusses computer control of power systems and SCADA systems in India. It provides statistics on India's power sector, including installed capacity, sources of energy, transmission losses, and peak load. It also outlines challenges in power systems like storage limitations and varying demand. The roles of an energy control center are summarized, including load forecasting, capacity planning, system monitoring, and economic dispatch. Finally, it introduces the hierarchy of power system operation in India and key components of SCADA systems, such as sensors, RTUs, master units, communication links, and software.
This document discusses the history and development of high voltage engineering. It begins with early experiments with static electricity by ancient Greeks. Key figures who contributed include Franklin, Faraday, Tesla, and Edison. Faraday's law established that a magnetic field can induce current in a wire. Advances allowed longer distance power transmission. Challenges included developing high voltage insulation. Numerical methods like finite element analysis are now used to model electric field distributions in complex high voltage components.
Load forecasting aims to predict electricity demand with varying levels of accuracy over different timescales. Short-term load forecasting for the next day can predict load within 1-3% accuracy, while long-term forecasting for the next year is less accurate due to uncertain weather. Load forecasting is important for utilities to plan operations and pricing. Key factors influencing load include weather, customer class, time of day, and special events. Common forecasting methods use statistical and machine learning techniques to model load as a function of these influencing factors.
Collecting Economic Data in Power Quality SurveyLeonardo ENERGY
Highlights:
* Presents an approach to facilitate economic data collection.
* Defines Power Quality (PQ) as the extent to which the electrical energy available at the point of use is compatible with the needs of the load equipment connected.
* Lack of compatibility may lead to end user equipment ceasing, operating erratically or incorrectly, or at reduced efficiency.
* Discusses the many parameters necessary for compatibility.
* Presents a checklist for checking the completeness of the methodology.
Electricity_Reliability_031611 Galvin Power ORGRonnie Waterman
The document discusses the importance of reliable electricity and outlines recommendations for improving reliability metrics and standards in the United States. It notes that power outages can have significant costs and consequences, including fatalities, lost productivity, and equipment damage. While some utilities have improved reliability without increasing costs, the U.S. generally lags global competitors in terms of reliability according to metrics like SAIDI and SAIFI. The recommendations suggest establishing consistent reliability metrics, targets, and reporting to identify areas for improvement and benchmark performance.
- ZVEI represents German electrical and electronic manufacturers and supports the EU Commission's Green Paper on energy.
- The manufacturers play an active role in power generation, transmission, and distribution through innovative products and services. They have global experience to contribute to discussions on the Green Paper.
- Reluctance to invest in European energy markets early in market liberalization negatively impacted manufacturers, so modernizing infrastructure as proposed fulfills conditions to strengthen European suppliers dependent on global success.
Deciding where to locate your future Datacenter is the first strategic decision for any company seeking to optimize the value of its investment and secure its asset on a long term basis.
This is a strategic equation that needs a careful due diligence process to assess critical factors. Among them are political stability, security, competitive and growing market, international laws and compliance, and many other key benefits such as cost, engineering capabilities, availability and quality of power, fibre connectivity, tax incentives...
FRANCE provides significant guarantees and advantages to ensure successful strategic investments.
- A study surveyed 68 organizations across 8 EU nations to analyze the impact of poor power quality on industry.
- It estimated that poor power quality costs EU industry €150 billion annually due to issues like downtime, equipment damage, and raw material/sales losses.
- The main sources of power quality issues were reported to be UPS systems, variable speed drives, processing equipment, electric motors, and electronic equipment. Common consequences included tripped relays/contactors and damaged motors/equipment.
CIGRE WG “Network of the Future” Electricity Supply Systems of the futurePower System Operation
The document discusses the key technical issues that will shape future electric power systems, as identified by a CIGRE working group. The 10 issues are: 1) active distribution networks with bidirectional power flows; 2) increased information exchange needs from advanced metering; 3) growth of HVDC and power electronics; 4) development and use of energy storage; 5) new concepts for system operation and control; 6) new protection concepts; 7) planning with environmental and technology changes; 8) tools for assessing technical performance; 9) increasing transmission infrastructure capacity; and 10) stakeholder engagement. The working group assesses which CIGRE study committees would be involved in addressing each issue.
The document summarizes an industrial energy audit conducted at R.R. Industries in Vadodara, India. The audit aimed to identify energy losses and inefficiencies in the facility's production and processes in order to minimize energy costs without affecting output or quality. Auditors monitored the facility's entire system and identified opportunities to reduce waste, lower energy bills, and improve the power factor and overall efficiency. Key areas examined included lighting, machinery, equipment loads, energy consumption by department, electrical parameters, and tariff plans. The audit findings and recommendations could help reduce energy usage and costs significantly at the facility.
This document provides an overview of the EuP Directive and its process for establishing eco-design requirements for energy-using products in the European context. It discusses key elements of the directive including its goal of improving energy efficiency and reducing environmental impacts through a lifecycle approach. It also summarizes several preparatory studies conducted on specific product groups from 2005-2007 to analyze existing products, best available technologies, and potential policy scenarios and their impacts. One such study examined standby and off-mode power losses from various common consumer electronics and estimated the potential energy savings from more stringent requirements.
This document summarizes a paper on achieving uninterruptible energy production in standalone power systems for telecommunications. It discusses how standalone power systems combining renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and fuel cells can provide reliable power for remote telecom equipment. However, it notes these systems still face reliability problems. The document reviews the typical failure modes of solar photovoltaic systems and wind turbines from previous studies. It recommends achieving uninterruptible energy through careful planning, using reliable components, following standards, and performing predictive maintenance informed by reliability analyses of similar systems.
System operators face a proliferation of power electronics
interfaced devices such as HVDC transmission lines,
wind and solar generation in their grids. Depending on
the jurisdiction, the instantaneous share of electrical
energy produced from renewable energy sources
occasionally reaches 150%. However, to operate a power
system with sustained high levels of renewable energy,
several operational challenges need to be addressed. The
goal of this survey paper, which is one of the products
of CIGRE joint working group C2/B4.38, is to identify
such challenges. To this extend, extensive literature
review and survey among and discussions with system
operators throughout the world were performed.
This paper identified several operational challenges that
were validated by system operators. These challenges
are grouped in the following three categories: (i) new
behavior of the power system, (ii) new operation of the
power system and (iii) lack of voltage and frequency
support. For each of the identified challenge, a
description, practical examples and relevant references
are provided.
This document summarizes a study on the economic effects of technical and non-technical losses in Nigeria's power transmission system. The study found that Nigeria's 330kV transmission network suffers from high voltage drops and power losses of around 454.73 GW annually, costing over 4.4 billion naira. These losses are caused by technical issues like low generation capacity and a long, fragile network as well as non-technical issues like electricity theft. Reducing these transmission and distribution losses, which at 17.72% of output are very high compared to more efficient countries, could boost Nigeria's economic growth.
This document analyzes failure events of uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems in Sokoto State, Nigeria over a 5-year period. Data was collected from the equipment maintenance center at Usmanu Danfodio University on 60 UPS units. The most common failures were blown fuses, blown transistors, and bad batteries, usually caused by poor electrical supply, overutilization, and high temperatures. Mean time to repair and mean time to detect were calculated to evaluate maintainability. Results showed UPS systems in Sokoto frequently fail due to unreliable power, overuse, and heat exposure.
This document discusses fault current limiters (FCLs) and their potential to extend the capacity of power grids. It notes that renewable energy targets are straining grids and that FCLs can help by limiting fault currents, allowing existing protection equipment to isolate faults and defer costly upgrades. The document outlines different FCL technologies, including Fault Current Limited's novel solid-state design, and estimates significant market potential for FCL deployment in the UK and benefits including savings of £38.4 million in one project. FCLs are presented as a cost-effective way to integrate more renewable energy by overcoming grid constraints.
Investigations into the lifetime of gas meter batteries in the NetherlandsMachiel Joosse
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Power distribution system fault monitoring device for supply networks in NigeriaIJECEIAES
Electric power is the bedrock of our modern way of life. In Nigeria, power supply availability, sufficiency and reliability are major operational challenges. At the generation and transmission level, effort is made to ensure status monitoring and fault detection on the power network, but at the distribution level, particularly within domestic consumer communities there are no fault monitoring and detection devices except for HRC fuses at the feeder pillar. Unfortunately, these fuses are sometimes replaced by a copper wire bridge at some locations rendering the system unprotected and creating a great potential for transformer destruction on overload. This study is focused on designing an on-site power system monitoring device to be deployed on selected household entry power cables for detecting and indicating when phase off, low voltage, high voltage, over current, and blown fuse occurs on the building’s incomer line. The fault indication will help in reducing troubleshooting time and also ensure quick service restoration. After design implementation, the test result confirms design accuracy, device functionality and suitability as a low-cost solution to power supply system fault monitoring within local communities.
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2. Power Quality Campaign
2
www.leonardo-energy.org
1. Foreword and Executive Summary
Since the end of the 1990s the European Copper Institute [ECI] has been concerned
about the impact experienced by commerce and industry of the changing nature of the
energy demands organisations face as a result of equipment technological advances, the
increasing need o build in resilience into their electrical power installations and the
presumed mounting costs of not taking either adequate preventative or reactive action to
accommodate the changes.
After some preliminary small scale studies into the impact of poor power quality on such
organisations and as the empirical but anecdotal evidence mounted being discussed at
length among the growing membership of the Leonardo Power Quality Initiative [LPQI*],
so ECI decided to mount an extensive research project into what the impacts were on
key energy suing industrial sectors of their not coping with poor power quality.
The project itself took over two years to complete and its results have been exposed in
2007 to a broad technical academic community with a view to securing their support and
agreement for this work, the findings of which, whilst not surprising to us, make very
negative reading in terms of the avoidable wastage and economic losses incurred by
these industrial sectors at a time when energy and resource efficiency are the demands
of today. Apply this to more commercial interpretation and it is clear that the EU’s
competitive position is also unnecessarily undermined asa a result of this wastage.
This report presents the European PQ Survey – it is clear that the industrial sectors
interviewed annually lose upwards of €150 billion as a direct result of their electrical
power installations not being sufficiently reliable and resilient for today’s and future
operating demands.
The causes of these losses are not new nor are the Power Quality [PQ] phenomena
involved. What was both surprising as well as concerning was and we suspect is still the
relative lack of analysis and measurement that take place among these power critical
industries to be able to know what is causing these damaging interruptions to their
operations.
2. Introduction
In 2005 to 2006 the Leonardo Power Quality Initiative team conducted a European PQ
Survey. The study comprised 62 face-to-face surveys carried out in 8 European
countries. This allowed for an extrapolation of the overall wastage caused by poor PQ in
EU-25 and for the analysis of many associated issues such as user perceptions of PQ
problems, the causes of PQ problems, the equipment mainly affected and any PQ
solutions that were available and adopted. Additionally PQ metering and where the
sources of poor PQ lie were also investigated.
A small scale respondent self-completion web based survey was also carried out.
The aim was to investigate industrial sectors that accounted for the lion’s share of non-
residential energy use and a significant share of EU 25 turnover. This resulted in
respondents from 16 industrial sectors being interviewed, who were technically oriented
with the added definition of being senior and experienced enough to be able to answer
detailed and sometimes commercially sensitive questions.
* LPQI was an EC supported 3-year programme that set up a unique virtual Application Guide of
papers addressing Power Quality phenomena www.lpqi.org
3. European Power Quality Survey Report
3
www.leonardo-energy.org
The questionnaire comprised two unequal halves. The first 5 Parts were straightforward
data gathering relating to PQ problems experienced, mitigation solutions respondents
were aware of and they had installed, perceived sources of PQ issues, measurement
undertaken and relations with the supplying electrical utility. The 6th Part investigated
real or hypothetical PQ Phenomena Cases to understand what consequences each
would have on that particular organisation.
Initially interviewing was carried out by the project team. A network of academic centres
and PQ specialists was then recruited to expand the interviewing capacity and carry out
the remainder of the field work. Each group was individually briefed to ensure coherence
of technique and responses. The questionnaire was translated into 7 languages. The
survey form is available on:
http://www.leonardo-energy.org/drupal/node/3758
All raw data generated was scrutinised centrally and any additional information needed
were secured by follow up questioning.
Based on the evidence received the project management then analysed the data in two
ways – statistically cross referencing the Parts 1-5 information and then calculating what
the real or hypothetical economic impact was in each of the cases studied. These
calculations investigated prima facie losses as well as other wastage that occurred but
was surprisingly absent from any existing productivity or corporate financial analysis.
The project has been managed in equal parts from Poland and from London.
3. Survey sample
The survey interviews and web based submission were conducted over a 2-year period
in 8 European countries. In all, 62 complete and 6 partial (i.e. excluding Part 6) interviews
were carried out. The Table 1 presents the numbers of surveys across 16 specified
sectors.
Table 1: LPQI study –number of surveys per sector
Sector No
Banks 3
Continuous manufacturing excluding pulp and paper,
publishing (separately)
6
Food and beverage 4
Hospitals 6
Hotels 1
Manufacturing (general; machinery, automotive parts, etc.) 5
Metallurgy 6
Newspaper publishing 2
Oil / Chemical 7
Pulp and paper 6
Pharmaceutical 4
R&D, designing services 1
Retail 1
Semiconductor 1
Telecommunication 4
Transport 5
4. Power Quality Campaign
4
www.leonardo-energy.org
These sectors represent some 38% (€6.843bn) of the EU-25 total of €17.956bn turnover
and 1.862 TWh or 70% of the Region’s 2.650 TWh of final electricity consumption.
The Table 2 presents numbers of surveys per country. The partial data responses were
received from Poland [4] and 1 each from UK and Slovenia
Table 2: LPQI study – number of surveys per country
4. Exploring Power Quality cost – methodology of data collection
The main purpose of this project was to estimate costs of wastage generated by
inadequate power quality for those sectors within the EU-25 for which electrical power is
critical. Previously, well-known international studies have only addressed some aspects
of this issue. For example, the CIGRE report covers costs caused by interruptions in 5 of
the now EU27 countries.
PQ costs in this survey have been reported in the following categories:
- Voltage dips and swells
- Short interruptions
- Long interruptions
- Harmonics
- Surges and transients
- Flicker, unbalance, earthing and EMC problems
The harmonics category was further subdivided to focus on particular impacts that were
treated as separate cases, defined as follows:
- Overstressing insulation, effects on electrical equipment including transformers,
capacitors, motors; the consequences of not measuring TRMS (True Root Mean
Square); additional losses.
- Overheating of the neutral conductor (e.g. burn off and subsequent disruption or
damage of electrical equipment).
- Nuisance tripping of protective devices
- Malfunction of equipment control systems due to additional zero crossing
To calculate the total cost of each PQ disturbance the following PQ cost categories were
analysed for each disturbance category.
Country No
Austria 1
France 13
Italy 4
Poland 5
Portugal 1
Slovenia 21
Spain 12
United Kingdom 5
5. European Power Quality Survey Report
5
www.leonardo-energy.org
Staff cost
Personnel rendered unproductive through disrupted work-flow / process. This cost was
calculated either by:
- multiplying total number of the man-hours of staff who were unable to work and
average man-hour rate of staff who were unable to work
or
- or by estimating the percentage of the plant activity (in terms of added value) which
was stopped and multiplied by the idle time of such stoppage. This value was then
compared to the total production time of the plant.
Work in progress
This category includes:
- Costs of raw materials involved in the production or services which was
irrevocably lost
- Labour involved the production or services which was irrevocably lost
- Labour needed to make up for lost production, sales, or services (such as
overtime pay, extra shifts, etc.)
Equipment malfunctioning
The consequence of the equipment being affected was defined as slowing down of
company activity or as production running out of specification. In this case both the
percentage of such slow down was calculated, taking into account additional “idle” time,
the value of products running out of specification and / or the value of insufficient quality
of products.
Equipment damage.
The consequence of the operating equipment being affected was defined as
experiencing damage to it, the shortening of its lifetime, premature components wear out
and the need for additional maintenance or repair. The cost components included:
- Cost of equipment being damaged (completely and scrapped) or cost of its
repair. This category typically included transformers, capacitors, motors, cables,
contactors, relays, protective equipment, electronic equipment and lighting bulbs.
- Cost to run and/or rent backup equipment if necessary.
- Additional maintenance costs because of excessive equipment component wear
out. Usually these included bearings, if a machine was unbalanced due to
distorted power, insulating, disconnecting any protective / signalling components
and resets or reinstallation.
Other costs
This category usually included:
- Penalties due to contract non-delivery or late delivery
- Environmental fines / penalties
- Cost of evacuation of personnel and equipment (this also could include ensuring
the safety of external communities)
- Costs of personnel injury (including the on-costs incurred through inability to
work)
- Increased insurance rates (equipment, personnel, corporate liability)
- Compensation paid out
6. Power Quality Campaign
6
www.leonardo-energy.org
Specific costs
For some disturbances some specific cost categories were distinguished:
- Harmonics - electricity bill. By operating electrical equipment in a non-linear
environment, additional eddy currents, heat dissipation and consequent energy
losses may be experienced. It was however not easy to measure them as a full
harmonic spectrum would have been needed. As an indication, a typical, large
office environment generates ~50% extra losses in transformers. Other possible
problems which may arise from harmonic pollution refer to the correct
measurement of electrical energy consumption and problems related to the utility
imposing penalties for harmonic pollution of the surrounding distribution network.
- Flicker can cause migraine and can be responsible for so called “sick building
syndrome” which reduces personnel productivity. The impact of Flicker was
defined for example as a comparison of staff error rates between flicker-free and
flicker environments.
Savings
To make the total calculation fair and complete, “savings” resulting from PQ disturbances
were calculated. These usually included:
- Savings from unused materials or inventory
- Savings from wages that were not paid
- Savings on your energy bill
These savings were deducted from the gross PQ cost. The final result represents the
total cost of PQ for the plant in question.
5. Methodology of analysis
All these cost were specified on an annual basis, either reported as such or pro-rated
where frequency was less than once pa.
All these cost were specified on an annual basis, either reported as such or pro-rated
where frequency was less than once pa.
Apart from specifying real PQ cost of wastage, respondents also defined those
hypothetical costs that would be the potential losses and risk avoided by power systems
that had been immunized against the PQ disturbances under review.
Based on 11 individual cases per complete interview the subsequent regression analysis
was performed to estimate PQ cost across those sectors that offered a convergence of 4
specific indices. These indices initially were: employment, energy consumption,
contractual power, annual turnover.
After refining them, the study concludes that “annual turnover” was a key indicator for a
regression model (see tables 3 and 4).
To arrive at a statistically significant and acceptable model the survey sample was
divided into two sub-samples - “Industry” and “Services”. The Banking sector was
excluded because of its anomalous size and structure.
The industry model
Analysis shows that for the “Industry” sector the estimation of how much wastage is
7. European Power Quality Survey Report
7
www.leonardo-energy.org
caused by poor PQ is 4% of annual turnover.
The services model
The model estimation of wastage caused by poor PQ is 0,1419% of annual turnover.
Statistical bias is real danger in research like this, especially in terms of how
representative the study is of the target universe. This was however resolved once the
random and statistically based samples were checked. The regression analysis applied
to this PQ Survey project proved that the samples and models are large and good
enough to conclude that the variation explained by the model is not due to chance and
that the relationship between the model and the dependent variable - annual PQ costs -
is very strong.
The charts in Figure 1 present the cost extrapolations of wastage caused by the range of
PQ phenomena throughout the sectors investigated in EU-25: PQ cost is characterized
by disturbance type (absolute value in € bln and % value of total cost) and cost
components.
Figure 1: Extrapolation of PQ cost to EU economy in LPQI surveyed
sectors
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
TotalServicesIndustry
4,2
0
4,1
53,4
2,1
51,2
1,31,10,2
6,4
1,8
4,6
86,5
1,5
85
REMARKS
Standard error
of estimation:
industry +/-5% based
on regression only and
+/- 2,54% variance
corrected services
+/-12,93%, +/-11,91%
respectively
Banks excluded
PQ cost in EU
>150 bln €
Flicker unbalance earthing and EMC
Surges and transients
Harmonics
Long interruptions
Dips and short interruptions
3
0,1
2,9
64
0,4
63,6
37,9
2
36
44,6
3,3
41,3
2,2
0,91,4
TotalServicesIndustry
Other cost
Equipment
Process slowdown
WIP
Labor
PQ
cost
in
bln
€
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The cost of wastage caused by poor PQ for EU-25 according to this analysis exceeds
€150bn. “Industry” accounts for over 90% of this wastage. That the proportion of these
total PQ costs/ losses accounted for by “Services” is so relatively small is possibly
explained by cost underestimations by service sector organisations that often experience
PQ problems in, say, an office environment, where distinguishing between the cause of a
given PQ issue and other root causes may be difficult.
Furthermore some services sectors like data centers, which probably experience high PQ
costs, have no representation in the survey. Hospitals fit well into the “Services” model
and demonstrate slightly higher PQ costs than other service sectors.
Dips and short interruptions account for almost 60% of the overall cost to industry and
57% for the total sample.
This extrapolation corresponds well with those levels indicated by EPRI CEIDS [3] PQ
survey (2000) in the US which reports between $119-188bn as the cost of poor PQ
generated wastage in the US with 4% of companies reporting annual costs of 10% or
more of annual revenue and 9% reporting costs between 1 and 9,99%.
6. PQ cost in detail
As has already been mentioned, the study shows that the economic impact of inadequate
PQ costs industry some 4% of turnover and “services” some 0,15%. Whilst these values
are extrapolations based on the sample interviewed, even given the survey sample of 42
industrial companies and 21 services companies, it can be said with confidence that
significant differences exist between the two.
Among industrial companies the highest values occur in typical continuous manufacturing
industries and lower values in the metallurgical, food and beverages and general
manufacturing sectors.
Within services sectors hospitals are significantly higher than other groups.
Industry v Services
The Tables 3 and 4 below present the statistics relating to different PQ cost frequencies,
grouped by “industry” and “services”.
Explanation of why the most accurate model would be based on PQ cost per company
turnover is found on Page 12 immediately after Table 4.
Table 3: LPQI Survey, Statistics – Frequencies – Industry
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Total
costper
kWh
Totalcost
perkW
peak
Totalcost
perturno-
ver
Totalcost
perelectri-
citybill
Totalcostper
employment
Costper
kWhdip
and
short
inter-
ruption
Cost
per
kWh
long
inter-
ruption
Costper
peakkW
dipor
shortin-
ter-
ruption
Costper
peakkW
longinter-
ruption
NValid
414141414141414141
Missing
000000000
Mean
0,625730,370,03747,53081580,13520,0802147323
Std.ErrorofMean
0,459298,240,00895,33029950,09220,046957260
Median
0,03195,570,01090,41312180,00980,0012284,18
Std.Deviation
2,9391909,720,057434,163191810,59030,30083711670
Variance
836470600,00301167,0003679227900,34900,09101377172789088
Minimum
000000000
Maximum
18,861106810,2375218,5521136383,77201,7090177110681
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The three “industry” histograms presented in Figure 2 show the distribution of
frequencies for different type of PQ cost indices. They show that in case of PQ cost per
turnover indicator, the frequency is closer to the normal distribution curve whilst the ratio
of Mean to Standard Deviation is far lower than in case of other indices
When comparing other statistics, especially variance, it is clear that the most accurate
model would be based on PQ cost per company turnover.
When analysing other indices, it also is apparent that the more appropriate
representation are values that are closer to Median rather than Mean.
Figure 2: LPQI survey. Frequency distribution of different PQ cost indices
Profiles of economic impacts by sector
The general structure of PQ cost for each sector is presented below:
Figure 3: LPQI survey, PQ cost components
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It is noticeable that in typical continuous manufacturing sectors the losses incurred by
lost work-in-progress (WIP) is quite significant and responsible for about one third of the
PQ costs recorded.
The slowing down of processes, which sometimes integrates WIP, and labour cost where
these are not visible as independent components, is understandably even more
significant.
In other sectors the situation is less clear with either labour cost or equipment related
costs being the most important source of economic losses.
Finally, in relation to public services like hotels and retail sector, PQ impact is measured
as slowing down their business activities, in terms of revenues that are irrevocably lost.
The Figures from 4 to 8 present PQ cost structure for 5 major groups of PQ disturbances
- dips, short and long interruptions, harmonics and surges and transients. The specific
observations are:
voltage dips - WIP accounts for almost 50% of PQ cost and the largest single source of
PQ caused economic losses, with process slow down accounting for a further 30%.
Figure 4: LPQI survey, PQ cost components per disturbance type
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- short interruptions - the cost structure is similar but costs relating to equipment
failure / premature ageing are more significant. This is in part explained by the
influence of the semi-conductor sector. This sector claims to be fully immunised
against dips; however evidence suggests a lack of immunity to short interruptions, in
which the category of equipment related cost dominates.
Figure 5: LPQI survey, PQ cost components per disturbance type
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- long interruptions - the importance of labour costs increases, reaching some 20%
on average. This is twice as great as the equivalent figure for “voltage dips” and
some 40% higher than with “short interruptions”. In addition there are instances
where some of the other cost categories take on greater importance and these tend
to be related to the long term economic consequences created by penalties
(commercial or statutory), loss of brand equity or the need for unanticipated business
investment to regain lost sales / market share.
Figures 6: LPQI survey, PQ cost components per disturbance type
- harmonics - process slow down generates almost two thirds of all harmonics
related costs. Equipment related costs represent about 25% these harmonics costs.
However, only 8 out of 62 companies specified PQ cost of harmonics that related to
additional energy losses. This cost in total is 186.000 € and represents about 1% of
the total cost of harmonics to the sample.
Figure 7: LPQI survey, PQ cost components per disturbance type
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- transients and surges - production outage is again a major source of economic
losses and is responsible for two thirds of total PQ costs and consequential losses.
One interesting observation from one of continuous manufacturing companies – see
the figure 8 was that 90% of transient/surge cost was reimbursed successfully to
them, presumably by their electricity supplier.
Figure 8: LPQI survey, PQ cost components per disturbance type
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The breakdown of costs by different PQ disturbances is presented in Figure 9.
Figure 9: LPQI survey, PQ disturbances cost structure in the survey sample
On average the absolute share of impacts of the 6 categories of disturbances taken from
the total survey sample is as follows:
- Voltage dips 23,6%
- Short interruptions 18,8%
- Long interruptions 12,5%
- Harmonics 5,4%
- Transients and surges 29%
- Other 10,7%
Further commentary about each of these can be made:
- Voltage dips are the most important source of impacts in the continuous re most
significant for food, metallurgy and newspaper publishing.
- Long interruptions are most costly for hotels and other “public services” sectors
- Transients and surges are the most damaging for the telecommunications sector
and for the pharmaceutical sector.
Frequency of disturbances
This section now summarises the PQ Survey results relating to the frequency of different
PQ disturbances by individual industrial sector as illustrated by the bar chart in Figure
10 :
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Figure 10: LPQI survey, PQ disturbance frequency, dips, interruptions, surges and
transients
These are annualised data giving the frequency of disturbances per sector. In this figure
one metals company claiming short interruptions every day has been filtered to avoid
distorting the overall picture.
Figure 11: LPQI survey, Frequency – annual time occurrence in %, harmonics,
flicker
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The Survey also analysed the frequency of harmonics and flicker expressed in time
percentage per year as illustrated by the chart in Figure 11 as well as the average
(yearly) values of disturbance frequencies broken down by the two categories “Industry”
and “Services”. See Table 5.
Table 5: LPQI survey Frequency of PQ disturbances
On average the MAIFI [Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index ] that has been
measured by this Survey is approximately 6; this is 3 times bigger than SAIFI [System
Average Interruption Frequency Index]. The number of recorded voltage dips, that is
identified by the respondents, is approximately twice the number of short interruptions.
This ratio is somewhat less for the services sectors.
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Cost per event of PQ disturbances
The cost per event identified by the Survey are shown in the chart in Figure 12:
Figure 12: LPQI survey, PQ cost per event for different disturbances
To avoid potential distortion, 2 out of the 62 companies surveyed (semiconductors and
retail) have been filtered out.
The average values of cost per event, that is the real losses incurred by the respondents
as a result of PQ disturbances, are presented in the Table 6:
Table 6: LPQI survey, PQ cost per event
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Remark*: 2 out of the 62 companies surveyed (semiconductors and retail) filtered out
These results can be summarised as follows:
- The cost per voltage dip event is between 2.120 and 4.682€.
- Single short interruptions on average are 3,3 times more costly for industry and just
over 9 times more costly for services.
- The average cost of long interruptions is 91.021€ and is more homogenous across
the whole survey sample.
All these results are quite comparable to different studies described at the beginning of
this chapter.
Assessing the generic cost per event for surges and transients is more problematic
because of the lack of other research into these PQ phenomena. For this Survey it
ranges from 120.000€ to 180.000€.
7. Power Quality solutions
The companies covered by the study invest yearly €297,5 million into different power
quality solutions. The Figure 13 charts the proportion of load per sector covered by
different types of redundant or mitigatory solutions.
Figure 13: LPQI Survey, PQ solutions – installation coverage in %
The analysis of these solutions produced some interesting conclusions:
Many of the correlations between solutions (both investment and load coverage) and
PQ cost, frequency of events or sensitivity to PQ problems, which were thought to
have been significant, have not been proven. The Table 7 presents all significant
relations, where 0,05 is used as reference threshold (the lower the value, the higher
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the probability of dependence), between PQ consequences and PQ solutions, as
confirmed by our survey. One further interpretation of these data is that they suggest
that, be it for reasons of incorrect or lack of measurement, much of the solutions
adopted have in fact been wrongly specified thus generating even further wastage.
Being outside the immediate scope of this survey this whole area could be another
area of investigative interest.
Table 7: LPQI survey, PQ consequence / PQ solution correlations
* Relationship between PQ consequence and solution tested by Chi-Square test (1 sided): the
lower the significance value [Sig], the less likely it is that the two variables are independent
(unrelated). Usually 0,05 is used as reference threshold.
The Figure 14 shows a certain relationship (although not proven by the linear regression
model; RSq Linear = 0,036) between PQ investment and the PQ Costs experienced. The
slope angle suggests a positive relationship between PQ investment and PQ unmitigated
costs.
Figure 14: LPQI Survey, PQ cost / PQ solution investment relation
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Although there is no significant correlation between solutions and real cost, a strong
correlation exists between investment in PQ solutions and the hypothetical to real cost
ratio*.
This results in an indirect but clear link between solutions and (real) consequences. See
Figure 15.
Figure 15: LPQI Survey, Mitigated and unmitigated PQ cost per unmitigated (real)
PQ cost ratio as a function of PQ solution investment
*That is, the ratio between actual costs experienced and the costs an organisation would
have experienced if they had suffered losses due to a PQ event.
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The following broad conclusions can be made:
- The increase in the ratio between hypothetic and real (mitigated / unmitigated) is
very visible in case of UPS.
- One side effect of UPS’ use is the increased cost of harmonics. This can be
explained by suboptimal use of UPS systems that are based on diffused small
units without active power wave modulation, which in turn generates significant
input current distortion.
- There is a small but significant (positive) correlation between number of power
lines and costs of short interruptions while such a correlation is insignificant as
far as dips are concerned.
8. Perceived levels of Power Quality
The study provided a number of additional conclusions regarding the perceived levels of
PQ such as the occurrence of PQ problems, their sources and the equipment affected by
them.
The occurrence of different equipment being affected by PQ, is presented in Figure 16.
Electronic equipment is most affected in the “industry” and “services” categories. Static
converters and electric motors are the next most affected. All other equipment types are
more evenly affected in the “services” category.
Figure 16: LPQI Survey, Occurrence of equipment being PQ affected in annual %
Below are some additional findings from the survey.
- The perceived level of presence of different PQ disturbances for all sectors is
presented in Figure 17 and varies quite noticeably.
- The semiconductor respondents did not specify experiencing long interruptions,
whilst they did record very intensive occurrence of voltage dips and short
interruptions.
- For all sectors, on average, the presence of short interruptions is perceived as
being the most intensive and disruptive.
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Figure 17: LPQI Survey, Presence (perceived) of PQ disturbances
The same differences in perception between the “Industry” and “Services” categories
also apply to the consequences of poor PQ - see Figure 18 - and amount to:
- Loss of synchronization of processing equipment, which is very common for
continuous manufacturing, caused “Industry” considerable problems for their
activity.
- Lock ups of computers and switching equipment tripping were the second most
problematic.
- As far as “Services” were concerned, circuit breakers tripping and data loss cause
the greatest problems.
- According to this Survey, respondents said that electric shocks are not relevant to
the PQ issues investigated.
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Figure 18: LPQI Survey, Frequency of PQ consequences as % of cases
The main sources or causes of PQ problems, see Figure 19, are defined as follows.
- Motor driven systems and, in general, static converters are the main sources of PQ
problems for “Industry”.
- Electronic equipment and components are the equivalent main source for the
“Services” category.
Figure 19: LPQI Survey, PQ problem source as % of cases
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Regarding PQ solutions, the Figure 20 presents the preferences of the two categories,
“Industry” and “Services”.
- Both specify UPS most frequently.
- Back up generators, which prove to be most effective in case of long interruptions, are
dominant in Services.
- Harmonic mitigation through harmonic filters is reported at 45% to 65% frequency
- For “Industry” passive filters are almost three times more popular than active filters
- For “Services”, active filters are slightly more prevalent.
- In general “Services” apply a higher frequency of different PQ solutions than found in
“Industry”.
- “Industry” tends to favour less costly, more ad hoc solutions whenever possible.
Figure 20: LPQI Survey, PQ solutions applied as % of cases
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9. her observations from the survey
Looking at where the fault for poor PQ resides, in general the blame usually is placed
squarely with external causes [Figure 21]. Within that general statement, “Services” more
frequently admit that their installation could be the source.
Figure 21: LPQI Survey, poor PQ responsibility, 0 – no, 4 - high extreme,
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PQ measurement was of great concern because this Survey identified a worryingly low
level of measurement of PQ parameters across the board. The implication of this was
that there is a patchy level of understanding and acceptance of the fact that ensuring
adequate PQ for these power critical industrial sectors has to start with continuous and
correct measurement logging of their power systems.
Figure 22 presents the feedback to two questions – the ability to identify the sources of
PQ events (the first 4 bars per category of the chart) and their frequency (the remaining 8
bars per category) and the continuous monitoring of the key PQ parameters that further
diagnose these issues:
- For the identification data set, the average response across all information sources
was a 50% - a level to repeat which is significantly low for industrial sectors that
depend on good PQ. Within that, the “Services’” direct PQ measurement is much
more frequent than that occurring in “Industry”, where PQ data gathering is more
reliant on the different PQ data acquisition components installed in their power
systems.
- Concerning continuous monitoring of key PQ parameters, this is more prevalent
with “Industry” than with “Services”. “Industry” continuously measured both reactive
power and Flicker several times more frequently than “Services”. In 70% of the
“Industry” cases, reactive power is subject to continuous measurement and this
could be for financial reasons when reactive power is likely to be subject to
separate accounting procedures.
Figure 22: LPQI Survey, PQ monitoring, 4 left bars - source of PQ event
information, remaining bars – measured PQ parameter
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A high proportion of the companies interviewed (46 out of 62) agreed that Flicker
generates PQ costs in terms of losses generated in employee efficiency, losses which
can amount to 10% of annual employment cost. These costs are related to vision
problems with symptoms like fatigue causing increased error rate. These consequences
relate to reduced productivity / inefficiency in work and in extreme cases employee
compensation. These costs would amount 167 mln € which is equivalent of
approximately 1,5% of all hypothetical (mitigated) and real (unmitigated) cost. As this is
an area of current and as yet inconclusive debate and although respondents affirmed that
their employees’ efficiency was reduced by the levels of Flicker experienced, the Flicker
Cases at this stage have all been treated as „hypothetical”.
Finally, in addition to the summary of these technical findings and as was stated earlier
but merits repeating, it is astounding that industrial sectors, for which electrical power is
critical, are not fully aware of these issues.
The main conclusion however remains that PQ costs in Europe are responsible for a
serious reduction in industrial performance with an economic impact exceeding €150bn.