This document provides definitions and concepts related to epidemiology and communicable diseases. It begins with defining epidemiology as the study of health-related states and events in populations. It then discusses the epidemiologic triad of host, agent, and environment. Key concepts covered include the definition of communicable diseases, importance of studying their epidemiology, relevant terminology, and the chain of infection involving the source or reservoir, modes of transmission, and susceptible host. Dynamics of disease transmission and concepts such as virulence, incubation period, and transmission probability ratio are also defined.
This presentation will help to get an insight into Epidemiological methods and describes details of Descriptive epidemiology. It will be useful to medical researcher as an initial input.
As per John M. Last (1988) Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems.
Measurements of morbidity and mortality
At the end of the session, the students shall be able to
List the basic measurements in epidemiology
Select an appropriate tools of measurement
Measure morbidity & mortality
Perform standardization of rates
This presentation will help to get an insight into Epidemiological methods and describes details of Descriptive epidemiology. It will be useful to medical researcher as an initial input.
As per John M. Last (1988) Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems.
Measurements of morbidity and mortality
At the end of the session, the students shall be able to
List the basic measurements in epidemiology
Select an appropriate tools of measurement
Measure morbidity & mortality
Perform standardization of rates
Difference between a pandemic, an epidemic, endemic, and an outbreakBarryAllen149
The distinction between the concepts “pandemic,” “epidemic,” and “endemic” is typically dimmed, also by medical specialists. Because the definition of each term is liquid, and it varies as diseases become more or less prevalent over time. In conversation, maybe this is less important to know the exact definitions but to understand the overall condition of public health news and responses you should know the concepts.
It gives all the important definitions used in infectious disease epidemiology and continues to elaborate on dynamics of disease transmission followed by prevention and control of infectious diseases.
The unusual occurrence in a community or region of disease, specific health related behaviour (eg. Smoking) or other health related events (eg. Traffic accidents) clearly in excess of “expected occurrence.
Difference between a pandemic, an epidemic, endemic, and an outbreakBarryAllen149
The distinction between the concepts “pandemic,” “epidemic,” and “endemic” is typically dimmed, also by medical specialists. Because the definition of each term is liquid, and it varies as diseases become more or less prevalent over time. In conversation, maybe this is less important to know the exact definitions but to understand the overall condition of public health news and responses you should know the concepts.
It gives all the important definitions used in infectious disease epidemiology and continues to elaborate on dynamics of disease transmission followed by prevention and control of infectious diseases.
The unusual occurrence in a community or region of disease, specific health related behaviour (eg. Smoking) or other health related events (eg. Traffic accidents) clearly in excess of “expected occurrence.
infectious-diseases -lec 1.pptGangrene is a clinical condition of ischemic an...RabeaDia
Gangrene is a clinical condition of ischemic and necrotic tissue, often circumferential around a digit or extremity. It is identified by discolored or black tissue and associated sloughing of natural tissue planes. The three main types of gangrene are wet gangrene, dry gangrene, and gas gangrene.Aug 7, 2023
A communicable disease is an illness due to a specific infectious (biological)agent or it's toxic products capable of being directly or indirectly transmitted from man to man,from animal to man,from animal to animal,from the environment (through air,water,food etc)to man.
STUDY TO ASSESS THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOVERNMENT PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS REGARDING...Kailash Nagar
STUDY TO ASSESS THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOVERNMENT PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS REGARDING ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPER ACTIVITY DISORDER IN SELECTED GOVERNMENT PRIMARY SCHOOL OF NADIAD CITY”
Comparative Study of Teaching Approach Nursing Simulation Vs Group Discussion...Kailash Nagar
Comparative Study of Teaching Approach Nursing Simulation Vs Group Discussion on Respiratory Assessment in Terms of Knowledge and Critical Thinking Abilities Among Nursing Students
Perception and Behavioural Outcome towards COVID-19 Vaccine among Students an...Kailash Nagar
ntroduction: Perception and behaviour towards corona vaccine among peoples in India was poor due to some side effects and negative media publicity in primary phases of vaccination. India has developed two types of vaccine (Covaxin and Covishield). During primary phase of corona vaccine we don’t have appropriate research and literature, about side effects and how far vaccine is reliable that why due so some minor side effect and negative media publicity peoples are very scared to take vaccine. So few peoples were started denial get vaccinated. The researcher wan to explore the positivity through the research result to reduce the negative mindset of the peoples toward corona vaccine, Because in India few peoples has fear to take vaccine against corona due to negative media publicity and scared of side effect.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
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Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
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Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
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Epidemiology of communicable disease
1. PRESENTED BY,
MR. KAILASH NAGAR
ASSIST. PROF.
DEPT. OF COMMUNITY HEALTH NSG.
DINSHA PATEL COLLEGE OF NURSING, NADIAD
2. Objectives
• Definition of epidemiology
• The epidemiologic triad
• Definition of communicable diseases
• Importance of studying communicable diseases
epidemiology
• Terminology
• Dynamics of disease transmission (chain of
infection):
– Human reservoir or source
– Modes of transmission
– Susceptible host
3. Definition of Epidemiology
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution
and determinants of health-related states
and events in populations, and the
application of this study to control health
problems (Last, 1983).
6. Definition of communicable diseases
• A communicable disease is an illness due to a
specific infectious (biological) agent or its toxic
products capable of being directly or indirectly
transmitted from man to man, from animal to
man, from animal to animal, or from the
environment (through air, water, food, etc..) to
man.
7. Importance of Studying Communicable Diseases
Epidemiology
• Changes of the pattern of infectious diseases
• Discovery of new infections
• The possibility that some chronic diseases
have an infective origin.
9. Terminology and Definitions (cont.)
• Virulence
• Reproductive rate of
infection
• Host
• Vector (source)
• Reservoir
• Incubation period
• Infectivity period
• Serial interval
• Latent period
• Transmission Probability
ratio
10. Infection
• Infection is the entry and development or
multiplication of an infectious agent in the body of
man or animals. An infection does not always cause
illness.
• There are several levels of infection (Gradients of
infection):
– Colonization (S. aureus in skin and normal nasopharynx)
– Subclinical or inapparent infection (polio)
– Latent infection (virus of herpes simplex)
– Manifest or clinical infection
11. contamination
• The presence of an infectious agent on a body
surface, on or in clothes, beddings, toys,
surgical instruments or dressings, or other
articles or substances including water and
food
12. Infestation
• It is the lodgment, development and
reproduction of arthropods on the surface of
the body or in the clothing, e.g. lice, itch mite.
This term could be also used to describe the
invasion of the gut by parasitic worms, e.g.
ascariasis.
13. Contagious disease
• A contagious disease is the one that is
transmitted through contact. Examples
include scabies, trachoma, STD and leprosy.
14. Host
• A person or an animal that affords subsistence
or lodgement to an infectious agent under
natural conditions. Types include: an obligate
host, definitive (primary) host, intermediate
host and a transport host.
15. Vector of infection
• An insect or any living carrier that transports
an infectious agent from an infected individual
or its wastes to a susceptible individual or its
food or immediate surroundings. Both
biological and mechanical transmissions are
encountered.
16. Reservoir
• Any person, animal, arthropod, plant, soil, or
substance, or a combination of these, in which
an infectious agent normally lives and
multiplies, on which it depends primarily for
survival, and where it reproduces itself in such
a manner that it can be transmitted to a
susceptible host. It is the natural habitat of
the infectious agent.
17. Incidence and prevalence of infectious
diseases
• Incidence of an infectious disease: number of new cases in a
given time period expressed as percent infected per year
(cumulative incidence) or number per person time of
observation (incidence density).
• Prevalence of an infectious disease: number of cases at a
given time expressed as a percent at a given time. Prevalence
is a product of incidence x duration of disease, and is of little
interest if an infectious disease is of short duration (i.e.
measles), but may be of interest if an infectious disease is of
long duration (i.e. chronic hepatitis B).
18. Epidemic
• “The unusual occurrence in a community of
disease, specific health related behavior, or
other health related events clearly in excess of
expected occurrence”
• (epi= upon; demos= people)
• Epidemics can occur upon endemic states too.
19. Endemic
• It refers to the constant presence of a disease
or infectious agent within a given geographic
area or population group. It is the usual or
expected frequency of disease within a
population.
• (En = in; demos = people)
20. Hyperendemic and holoendemic
• The term “hyperendemic” expresses that the disease
is constantly present at high incidence and/or
prevalence rate and affects all age groups equally.
• The term “holoendemic” expresses a high level of
infection beginning early in life and affecting most of
the child population, leading to a state of equilibrium
such that the adult population shows evidence of the
disease much less commonly than do the children
(e.g. malaria)
21. Pandemic and Exotic
• An epidemic usually affecting a large proportion of
the population, occuring over a wide geographic area
such as a section of a nation, the entire nation, a
continent or the world, e.g. Influenza pandemics.
• Exotic diseases are those which are imported into a
country in which they do not otherwise occur, as for
example, rabies in the UK.
22. Sporadic
• The word sporadic means “scattered about”. The
cases occur irregularly, haphazardly from time to
time, and generally infrequently. The cases are few
and separated widely in time and place that they
show no or little connection with each other, nor a
recognizable common source of infection e.g. polio,
meningococcal meningitis, tetanus….
• However, a sporadic disease could be the starting
point of an epidemic when the conditions are
favorable for its spread.
23. Attack rates and primary/secondary
cases
• Attack rate: proportion of non-immune exposed
individuals who become clinically ill.
• Primary (index)/secondary cases: The person who
comes into and infects a population is the primary
case. Those who subsequently contract the infection
are secondary cases. Further spread is described as
"waves" or "generations".
24. Zoonosis, epizootic and enzootic
• Zoonosis is an infection that is transmissible under
natural conditions from vertebrate animals to man,
e.g. rabies, plague, bovine tuberculosis…..
• An epizotic is an outbreak (epidemic) of disease in an
animal population, e.g. rift valley fever.
• An Enzotic is an endemic occurring in animals, e.g.
bovine TB.
25. Nosocomial infections
• Nosocomial (hospital acquired) infection is an
infection originating in a patient while in a
hospital or another health care facility. It has
to be a new disorder unrelated to the
patient’s primary condition. Examples include
infection of surgical wounds, hepatitis B and
urinary tract infetions.
26. Opportunistic infection
• This is infection by organisms that take the
opportunity provided by a defect in host
defense (e.g. immunity) to infect the host and
thus cause disease. For example, opportunistic
infections are very common in AIDS.
Organisms include Herpes simplex,
cytomegalovirus,
• M. tuberculosis….
27. Eradication and Elimination
• Termination of all transmission of infection by the
extermination of the infectious agent through surveillance
and containment. Eradication is an absolute process, an “all or
none” phenomenon, restricted to termination of infection
from the whole world.
• The term elimination is sometimes used to describe
eradication of a disease from a large geographic region.
Disease which are amenable to elimination in the meantime
are polio, measles and diphtheria.
28. Reproductive rate of infection:
• Reproductive rate of infection: potential for an
infectious disease to spread. Influential factors
include the probability of transmission between an
infected and a susceptible individual; frequency of
population contact; duration of infection; virulence
of the organism and population immune proportion .
29. Dynamics of disease Transmission
(Chain of Infection)
Source or Reservoir Modes of transmission Susceptible host
I II III
30. (I): Source or Reservoir
• The starting point for the occurrence of a communicable
disease is the existence of a reservoir or source of infection.
• The source of infection is defined as “the person, animal,
object or substance from which an infectious agent passes or
is disseminated to the host (immediate source). The reservoir
is “any person, animal, arthropod, plant, soil, or substance, or
a combination of these, in which an infectious agent normally
lives and multiplies, on which it depends primarily for survival,
and where it reproduces itself in such a manner that it can be
transmitted to a susceptible host. It is the natural habitat of
the infectious agent.”
32. Human reservoir
Human reservoir
cases carriers
According to spectrum of disease:
•Clinical cases
(mild/severe-typical/atypical)
•Sub-clinical cases
•Latent infection cases
•Primary case
•Index case
•Secondary cases
Type:
•Incubatory
•Convalescent
•healthy
Duration:
•Temporar
y
•Chronic
Portal of exit:
•Urinary
•Intestinal
•Respiratory
•others
33. Cases
• A case is defined as “a person in the
population or study group identified as having
the particular disease, health disorder, or
condition under investigation”
34. Carriers
• It occurs either due to inadequate treatment or immune response, the
disease agent is not completely eliminated, leading to a carrier state.
• It is “an infected person or animal that harbors a specific infectious
agent in the absence of discernible (visible) clinical disease and serves
as a potential source of infection to others.
• Three elements have to occur to form a carrier state:
1. The presence in the body of the disease agent.
2. The absence of recognizable symptoms and signs of disease.
3. The shedding of disease agent in the discharge or excretions.
35. Animal reservoirs
• Zoonosis is an infection that is transmissible
under natural conditions from vertebrate
animals to man, e.g. rabies, plague, bovine
tuberculosis…..
• There are over a 100 zoonotic diseases that
can be conveyed from animal to man.
36. Reservoir in non-living things
• Soil and inanimate matter can also act as
reservoir of infection.
• For example, soil may harbor agents that
causes tetanus, anthrax and
coccidiodomycosis.
37. (II): Modes of transmission
Mode of transmission
Direct
transmission
Indirect
transmission
Direct contact
Droplet infection
Contact with soil
Inoculation into skin or mucosa
Trans-placental (vertical)
Vehicle-borne
•Vector-borne:
•Mechanical
•biological
Air-borne
Fomite-born
Unclean hands
and fingers
propagative
Cyclo-prop.
Cyclo-develop.
38. (III): Susceptible host
• An infectious agent seeks a susceptible host aiming
“successful parasitism”.
• Four stages are required for successful parasitism:
1. Portal of entry
2. Site of election inside the body
3. Portal of exit
4. Survival in external environment
39. Virulence and Case Fatality Rate
• Virulence: is the degree of pathogenicity; the disease evoking
power of a micro-organism in a given host. Numerically
expressed as the ratio of the number of cases of overt
infection to the total number infected, as determined by
immunoassay. When death is the only criterion of severity,
this is the case fatality rate.
• Case fatality rate for infectious diseases: is the proportion of
infected individuals who die of the infection. This is a function
of the severity of the infection and is heavily influenced by
how many mild cases are not diagnosed.
40. Serial interval and Infectious period
• Serial interval: (the gap in time between the onset of
the primary and the secondary cases) the interval
between receipt of infection and maximal infectivity
of the host (also called generation time).
• Infectious (communicable) period: length of time a
person can transmit disease (sheds the infectious
agent).
41. Incubation and Latent periods
• Incubation period: time from exposure to
development of disease. In other words, the time
interval between invasion by an infectious agent and
the appearance of the first sign or symptom of the
disease in question.
• Latent period: the period between exposure and the
onset of infectiousness (this may be shorter or longer
than the incubation period).
42. Transmission Probability Ratio (TPR)
TPR is a measure of risk transmission from
infected to susceptible individuals during a contact.
TPR of differing types of contacts, infectious
agents, infection routes and strains can be
calculated.
There are 4 types of transmission probabilities.
43. TPR (cont.)
Transmission probabilities:
• p00: tp from unvaccinated infective to unvaccinated
susceptible
• p01: tp from vaccinated infective to unvaccinated
susceptible
• p10: tp from unvaccinated infective to vaccinated
susceptible
• p11: tp from vaccinated infective to vaccinated
susceptible
44. TPR (cont.)
• To estimate the effect of a vaccine in reducing
susceptibility, compare the ratio of p10 to p00.
• To estimate the effect of a vaccine in reducing
infectiousness, compare the ratio of p01 to p00.
• To estimate the combined effect of a vaccine,
compare the ratio of p11 to p00.