This document outlines an introduction to meteorology course, including information about the course structure, content, learning outcomes, and assessment. It provides an overview of the course, which covers topics such as the structure and composition of the atmosphere, global energy budgets, atmospheric processes and weather phenomena, analytical meteorology methods, and an introduction to aviation meteorology. The first topic discussed in the course content is the Earth's atmosphere, including its definition, general characteristics, and how its composition has evolved over time.
1. The document discusses key concepts about Earth's atmosphere including how solar radiation drives global climate and local weather patterns.
2. It explains different climate types based on factors like latitude, proximity to bodies of water, and elevation. Humid climates receive more precipitation than potential evapotranspiration while arid climates experience the opposite.
3. Atmospheric circulation patterns like global wind belts and ocean currents play an important role in moderating Earth's climate by transporting heat energy from the tropics to poles and distributing it around the globe over long time periods.
Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere and weather forecasting. The word was coined from Aristotle's book Meteorologica in ancient Greece, which described earth sciences including weather. Significant progress occurred in the 18th century with observing networks and breakthroughs in the 20th century after computer development. Key early inventions included Galileo's thermometer, Torricelli's barometer, and weather instruments to measure variables like wind, humidity and rainfall. Modern meteorology has benefited from technology allowing rapid data sharing and atmospheric probing with balloons, satellites and radars.
This document discusses various cloud formation processes including adiabatic temperature changes, orographic lifting, frontal wedging, convergence, localized convective lifting, stability, condensation, and precipitation processes like the Bergeron process and collision-coalescence process. It also covers cloud types like cumulus, cirrus, and stratus clouds as well as fog, rain, snow, sleet, glaze and hail.
In meteorology, a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets, frozen crystals, or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body
Contrails are line-shaped clouds produced by aircraft engine exhaust or changes in air pressure, typically at aircraft cruise altitudes several miles above the Earth's surface. Contrails are composed primarily of water, in the form of ice crystals
Wind is caused by differences in air pressure and is responsible for weather patterns globally. The main drivers of wind include solar heating of the atmosphere creating pressure differences, the Coriolis effect which causes winds to bend, and pressure gradient force pushing air from high to low pressure areas. Global wind systems include the trade winds near the equator, the prevailing westerlies in mid-latitudes, and polar easterlies near the poles. Local winds are also influenced by differences in land and sea temperatures.
1. The document discusses key concepts about Earth's atmosphere including how solar radiation drives global climate and local weather patterns.
2. It explains different climate types based on factors like latitude, proximity to bodies of water, and elevation. Humid climates receive more precipitation than potential evapotranspiration while arid climates experience the opposite.
3. Atmospheric circulation patterns like global wind belts and ocean currents play an important role in moderating Earth's climate by transporting heat energy from the tropics to poles and distributing it around the globe over long time periods.
Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere and weather forecasting. The word was coined from Aristotle's book Meteorologica in ancient Greece, which described earth sciences including weather. Significant progress occurred in the 18th century with observing networks and breakthroughs in the 20th century after computer development. Key early inventions included Galileo's thermometer, Torricelli's barometer, and weather instruments to measure variables like wind, humidity and rainfall. Modern meteorology has benefited from technology allowing rapid data sharing and atmospheric probing with balloons, satellites and radars.
This document discusses various cloud formation processes including adiabatic temperature changes, orographic lifting, frontal wedging, convergence, localized convective lifting, stability, condensation, and precipitation processes like the Bergeron process and collision-coalescence process. It also covers cloud types like cumulus, cirrus, and stratus clouds as well as fog, rain, snow, sleet, glaze and hail.
In meteorology, a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets, frozen crystals, or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body
Contrails are line-shaped clouds produced by aircraft engine exhaust or changes in air pressure, typically at aircraft cruise altitudes several miles above the Earth's surface. Contrails are composed primarily of water, in the form of ice crystals
Wind is caused by differences in air pressure and is responsible for weather patterns globally. The main drivers of wind include solar heating of the atmosphere creating pressure differences, the Coriolis effect which causes winds to bend, and pressure gradient force pushing air from high to low pressure areas. Global wind systems include the trade winds near the equator, the prevailing westerlies in mid-latitudes, and polar easterlies near the poles. Local winds are also influenced by differences in land and sea temperatures.
High pressure systems create clear, sunny weather as sinking air warms up, reducing condensation. Low pressure systems produce cloudy, rainy weather as rising air cools, allowing water vapor to condense into clouds. When warm and cold air meet, the denser cold air pushes under the less dense warm air, forcing it to rise and cool, creating clouds and potentially rain or snow if the air cools enough. As a depression passes overhead, it brings first a cold front with rain, then a warm sector with some showers, and finally a warm front with more widespread rain.
This document summarizes different types of cloud formation processes and cloud types. It discusses adiabatic temperature changes that cause expansion and cooling, orographic lifting caused by air flowing over elevated terrain, frontal wedging that occurs at storm fronts, and localized convective lifting caused by uneven heating of the surface. It also describes the three main cloud height categories - high, middle, and low clouds - and specific cloud types like cirrus, cumulus, and stratus clouds. Clouds can form through stability or instability in the atmosphere and require water vapor to condense.
Clouds form when water vapor condenses into liquid water droplets or solid ice crystals. There are three main ways that air can be cooled enough for condensation to occur: contact cooling over land or sea surfaces, convection as air rises, and orographic lifting as air rises over mountains. Clouds can be classified based on their shape and height, with low-level clouds like stratus closest to the surface and high-level clouds like cirrus located over 6,000 meters. The major cloud belts around the world are associated with prevailing wind patterns.
This document discusses air masses and fronts. It defines air masses as large bodies of air that extend thousands of kilometers and have uniform temperature and humidity. Air masses form over source regions and are classified as either tropical or polar, and continental or maritime. Fronts occur at the boundary between differing air masses and can be cold, warm, stationary or occluded fronts. Each front type brings characteristic weather conditions from rain to thunderstorms as the warmer air is displaced.
This document summarizes data from multiple scientific organizations on trends in global surface air temperatures and atmospheric greenhouse gas levels. The key points are:
1) Six independent scientific groups find that average global land and sea surface temperatures have steadily increased over the past century, with the most rapid rise occurring over the past 50 years.
2) Regional temperature changes are often larger than global averages, with greater warming at northern high latitudes and Arctic regions.
3) Satellite and weather balloon data also indicate warming of the lower troposphere and cooling of the lower stratosphere.
4) Atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane have risen substantially since the industrial revolution due to human activities like fossil fuel burning
- Lapse rate is the decrease of air temperature with increasing elevation in the troposphere. It is influenced by factors like dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR), wet adiabatic lapse rate (WALR), and environmental lapse rate (ELR).
- The stability of the atmosphere depends on the relationship between the ELR and the DALR/WALR. If ELR > DALR, the atmosphere is unstable. If ELR < DALR, the atmosphere is stable. If ELR = DALR, the atmosphere is neutral.
- Radiosondes are instruments used to measure atmospheric variables like temperature, pressure, humidity at different
Earth's early atmosphere contained hydrogen and helium. After the Moon formed, volcanic activity produced CO, CO2, and water vapor. Once cyanobacteria evolved and performed photosynthesis, they consumed CO2 and produced oxygen. Currently, Earth's atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% trace gases. Burning fossil fuels adds excess CO2 and pollutants, warming the climate. CFCs have also depleted the ozone layer.
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air, with warm air able to absorb much more water vapor than cold air. Relative humidity compares the actual amount of water vapor in the air to the total amount the air can hold at a given temperature, with 100% relative humidity occurring when the air can hold no more water vapor.
An air mass is a large body of air with similar temperature and moisture properties that can cover hundreds of thousands of square miles. Air masses originate over land or water source regions and take on the characteristics of the surface below over time. There are four main types of air masses defined by their source region in tropical or polar latitudes and whether that region is over land or water. When polar air meets warmer air over the United States, it causes the formation of the polar jet stream, a narrow belt of strong winds near the top of the troposphere that influences weather patterns and temperatures in the US.
An air mass is a large volume of air that takes on consistent temperature and humidity characteristics based on the region over which it travels. There are four main types of air masses: maritime tropical (warm and humid), continental tropical (warm and dry), maritime polar (cold and humid), and continental polar (cold and dry). Weather patterns change as different air masses are pushed around the Earth by forces like the jet stream, which generally moves air masses from west to east across the United States.
Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere and weather processes. The field has a long history dating back millennia, though significant progress occurred in the 18th century with observing networks. Meteorologists work in various sectors to forecast weather and study atmospheric phenomena across micro, meso, and synoptic scales. Key instruments invented over time include the rain gauge, thermometer, barometer, hygrometer, and aneroid barometer, enabling the detailed study and prediction of weather and climate.
deals with temperature, density, pressure, winds and humidity parameters of the atmosphere; Prssure gradient force, coriolis force, gravity force and friction force and winds and currents, ; pressure lows and highs, atmospheric circulation, winds.
The global atmospheric circulation system transports heat around the Earth's atmosphere and affects climate and weather patterns. It involves warm air rising at the equator and cold air sinking at the poles, creating circulation cells. Without this system, temperatures would become more extreme between the tropics and poles.
This document provides an overview of weather and climate concepts. It discusses how weather is caused by differences in temperature and air pressure between locations. It also describes common weather phenomena and how weather is forecasted using various instruments and models. The document outlines different climate zones and variables that influence climate. It explains phenomena like El Niño and hurricanes and how climate change is impacting environments and societies.
This document summarizes key concepts about atmospheric pressure and global wind patterns from a geography textbook chapter. It defines important terms like isobars, high and low pressure systems, and describes the major wind systems - including the trade winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies - that make up the general circulation of the atmosphere. Specific wind patterns like the Hadley cell and subtropical high are explained in terms of atmospheric pressure gradients and the Coriolis effect.
There are three main types of clouds - stratus, cirrus, and cumulus - which form in different ways and can be used to predict weather. Stratus clouds form in layers when warm air rises over cooler air, and can produce rain or snow. Cumulus clouds have flat bottoms and puffy tops, and usually indicate fair weather but sometimes rain. Cumulonimbus clouds are large thunderheads that bring thunderstorms and occasionally hail. Cirrus clouds form high in the sky and usually mean good weather is coming, though they may also signal an upcoming change.
The document provides an overview of weather and climate concepts. It discusses the water cycle, factors that affect weather like the sun, atmosphere, oceans, and how weather occurs in the troposphere. It also defines climate as the long-term patterns over large areas, and describes the three main climate zones: polar, temperate, and tropical. Storms like thunderstorms, hurricanes, and tornadoes are also summarized.
This document provides an introduction to various components of weather, including temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, and precipitation. It explains how temperature differences cause air to rise and fall, creating wind. It also describes how warm air rising from the Earth's surface creates areas of low pressure that draw in surrounding high pressure air. Additionally, it outlines how global convection patterns and the Coriolis effect influence major wind currents in each hemisphere. Finally, it discusses water vapor and relative humidity.
This document discusses clouds and precipitation. It defines evaporation and condensation, and explains how clouds form when air rises and cools to the dew point, allowing water vapor to condense on condensation nuclei. The main cloud types - cirrus, stratus, and cumulus - are identified based on their location in the sky and the weather they predict. The four major types of precipitation - rain, snow, sleet, and hail - are described based on their characteristics and formation processes.
This document discusses the key components of weather and climate. It describes the atmosphere as being made up of four layers - the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. The ozone layer, located in the stratosphere, protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. Temperature varies based on factors like latitude, altitude, and distance from bodies of water. Humidity and precipitation are also influenced by temperature, with water vapor condensing into clouds and precipitating as rain, snow, or hail. Atmospheric pressure changes with temperature and altitude, and wind is caused by differences in air pressure.
The document discusses the global energy budget and factors that influence it. It explains that the Earth receives radiant energy from the sun, which is balanced by the infrared radiation emitted back to space. Key points covered include the electromagnetic spectrum, forms of energy, greenhouse gases that influence temperatures, and how seasonal and yearly averages of incoming and outgoing radiation are balanced. Factors like latitude, altitude and surface albedo affect the amount of solar radiation reaching a location.
This document discusses winds, air masses, and fronts in the atmosphere. It begins by introducing winds and how they are caused by pressure differences driven by temperature variations. It describes various forces that influence winds, including pressure gradient force, Coriolis force, and friction. Several global wind systems are then outlined, such as trade winds and westerlies. Local wind systems like sea breezes and mountain/valley breezes are also summarized. These local winds develop due to uneven heating and cooling of land and water surfaces.
High pressure systems create clear, sunny weather as sinking air warms up, reducing condensation. Low pressure systems produce cloudy, rainy weather as rising air cools, allowing water vapor to condense into clouds. When warm and cold air meet, the denser cold air pushes under the less dense warm air, forcing it to rise and cool, creating clouds and potentially rain or snow if the air cools enough. As a depression passes overhead, it brings first a cold front with rain, then a warm sector with some showers, and finally a warm front with more widespread rain.
This document summarizes different types of cloud formation processes and cloud types. It discusses adiabatic temperature changes that cause expansion and cooling, orographic lifting caused by air flowing over elevated terrain, frontal wedging that occurs at storm fronts, and localized convective lifting caused by uneven heating of the surface. It also describes the three main cloud height categories - high, middle, and low clouds - and specific cloud types like cirrus, cumulus, and stratus clouds. Clouds can form through stability or instability in the atmosphere and require water vapor to condense.
Clouds form when water vapor condenses into liquid water droplets or solid ice crystals. There are three main ways that air can be cooled enough for condensation to occur: contact cooling over land or sea surfaces, convection as air rises, and orographic lifting as air rises over mountains. Clouds can be classified based on their shape and height, with low-level clouds like stratus closest to the surface and high-level clouds like cirrus located over 6,000 meters. The major cloud belts around the world are associated with prevailing wind patterns.
This document discusses air masses and fronts. It defines air masses as large bodies of air that extend thousands of kilometers and have uniform temperature and humidity. Air masses form over source regions and are classified as either tropical or polar, and continental or maritime. Fronts occur at the boundary between differing air masses and can be cold, warm, stationary or occluded fronts. Each front type brings characteristic weather conditions from rain to thunderstorms as the warmer air is displaced.
This document summarizes data from multiple scientific organizations on trends in global surface air temperatures and atmospheric greenhouse gas levels. The key points are:
1) Six independent scientific groups find that average global land and sea surface temperatures have steadily increased over the past century, with the most rapid rise occurring over the past 50 years.
2) Regional temperature changes are often larger than global averages, with greater warming at northern high latitudes and Arctic regions.
3) Satellite and weather balloon data also indicate warming of the lower troposphere and cooling of the lower stratosphere.
4) Atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane have risen substantially since the industrial revolution due to human activities like fossil fuel burning
- Lapse rate is the decrease of air temperature with increasing elevation in the troposphere. It is influenced by factors like dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR), wet adiabatic lapse rate (WALR), and environmental lapse rate (ELR).
- The stability of the atmosphere depends on the relationship between the ELR and the DALR/WALR. If ELR > DALR, the atmosphere is unstable. If ELR < DALR, the atmosphere is stable. If ELR = DALR, the atmosphere is neutral.
- Radiosondes are instruments used to measure atmospheric variables like temperature, pressure, humidity at different
Earth's early atmosphere contained hydrogen and helium. After the Moon formed, volcanic activity produced CO, CO2, and water vapor. Once cyanobacteria evolved and performed photosynthesis, they consumed CO2 and produced oxygen. Currently, Earth's atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% trace gases. Burning fossil fuels adds excess CO2 and pollutants, warming the climate. CFCs have also depleted the ozone layer.
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air, with warm air able to absorb much more water vapor than cold air. Relative humidity compares the actual amount of water vapor in the air to the total amount the air can hold at a given temperature, with 100% relative humidity occurring when the air can hold no more water vapor.
An air mass is a large body of air with similar temperature and moisture properties that can cover hundreds of thousands of square miles. Air masses originate over land or water source regions and take on the characteristics of the surface below over time. There are four main types of air masses defined by their source region in tropical or polar latitudes and whether that region is over land or water. When polar air meets warmer air over the United States, it causes the formation of the polar jet stream, a narrow belt of strong winds near the top of the troposphere that influences weather patterns and temperatures in the US.
An air mass is a large volume of air that takes on consistent temperature and humidity characteristics based on the region over which it travels. There are four main types of air masses: maritime tropical (warm and humid), continental tropical (warm and dry), maritime polar (cold and humid), and continental polar (cold and dry). Weather patterns change as different air masses are pushed around the Earth by forces like the jet stream, which generally moves air masses from west to east across the United States.
Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere and weather processes. The field has a long history dating back millennia, though significant progress occurred in the 18th century with observing networks. Meteorologists work in various sectors to forecast weather and study atmospheric phenomena across micro, meso, and synoptic scales. Key instruments invented over time include the rain gauge, thermometer, barometer, hygrometer, and aneroid barometer, enabling the detailed study and prediction of weather and climate.
deals with temperature, density, pressure, winds and humidity parameters of the atmosphere; Prssure gradient force, coriolis force, gravity force and friction force and winds and currents, ; pressure lows and highs, atmospheric circulation, winds.
The global atmospheric circulation system transports heat around the Earth's atmosphere and affects climate and weather patterns. It involves warm air rising at the equator and cold air sinking at the poles, creating circulation cells. Without this system, temperatures would become more extreme between the tropics and poles.
This document provides an overview of weather and climate concepts. It discusses how weather is caused by differences in temperature and air pressure between locations. It also describes common weather phenomena and how weather is forecasted using various instruments and models. The document outlines different climate zones and variables that influence climate. It explains phenomena like El Niño and hurricanes and how climate change is impacting environments and societies.
This document summarizes key concepts about atmospheric pressure and global wind patterns from a geography textbook chapter. It defines important terms like isobars, high and low pressure systems, and describes the major wind systems - including the trade winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies - that make up the general circulation of the atmosphere. Specific wind patterns like the Hadley cell and subtropical high are explained in terms of atmospheric pressure gradients and the Coriolis effect.
There are three main types of clouds - stratus, cirrus, and cumulus - which form in different ways and can be used to predict weather. Stratus clouds form in layers when warm air rises over cooler air, and can produce rain or snow. Cumulus clouds have flat bottoms and puffy tops, and usually indicate fair weather but sometimes rain. Cumulonimbus clouds are large thunderheads that bring thunderstorms and occasionally hail. Cirrus clouds form high in the sky and usually mean good weather is coming, though they may also signal an upcoming change.
The document provides an overview of weather and climate concepts. It discusses the water cycle, factors that affect weather like the sun, atmosphere, oceans, and how weather occurs in the troposphere. It also defines climate as the long-term patterns over large areas, and describes the three main climate zones: polar, temperate, and tropical. Storms like thunderstorms, hurricanes, and tornadoes are also summarized.
This document provides an introduction to various components of weather, including temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, and precipitation. It explains how temperature differences cause air to rise and fall, creating wind. It also describes how warm air rising from the Earth's surface creates areas of low pressure that draw in surrounding high pressure air. Additionally, it outlines how global convection patterns and the Coriolis effect influence major wind currents in each hemisphere. Finally, it discusses water vapor and relative humidity.
This document discusses clouds and precipitation. It defines evaporation and condensation, and explains how clouds form when air rises and cools to the dew point, allowing water vapor to condense on condensation nuclei. The main cloud types - cirrus, stratus, and cumulus - are identified based on their location in the sky and the weather they predict. The four major types of precipitation - rain, snow, sleet, and hail - are described based on their characteristics and formation processes.
This document discusses the key components of weather and climate. It describes the atmosphere as being made up of four layers - the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. The ozone layer, located in the stratosphere, protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. Temperature varies based on factors like latitude, altitude, and distance from bodies of water. Humidity and precipitation are also influenced by temperature, with water vapor condensing into clouds and precipitating as rain, snow, or hail. Atmospheric pressure changes with temperature and altitude, and wind is caused by differences in air pressure.
The document discusses the global energy budget and factors that influence it. It explains that the Earth receives radiant energy from the sun, which is balanced by the infrared radiation emitted back to space. Key points covered include the electromagnetic spectrum, forms of energy, greenhouse gases that influence temperatures, and how seasonal and yearly averages of incoming and outgoing radiation are balanced. Factors like latitude, altitude and surface albedo affect the amount of solar radiation reaching a location.
This document discusses winds, air masses, and fronts in the atmosphere. It begins by introducing winds and how they are caused by pressure differences driven by temperature variations. It describes various forces that influence winds, including pressure gradient force, Coriolis force, and friction. Several global wind systems are then outlined, such as trade winds and westerlies. Local wind systems like sea breezes and mountain/valley breezes are also summarized. These local winds develop due to uneven heating and cooling of land and water surfaces.
This document discusses air masses and fronts. It defines air masses as large bodies of air with uniform temperature and humidity characteristics formed over flat, uniform source regions. It identifies the five main air mass categories and the principal air masses over eastern Africa. It then explains that fronts are boundaries between differing air masses and describes the four main front types - cold fronts, warm fronts, stationary fronts and occluded fronts - and their characteristic weather patterns. It concludes by showing the symbols used to represent different fronts on weather maps.
This document provides an overview of thunderstorms and related weather phenomena. It defines a thunderstorm as a convective storm containing lightning and thunder. Thunderstorms generally go through three stages - cumulus, mature, and dissipating. Squall lines form when multicell thunderstorms organize into a line. Supercell thunderstorms feature a strong, persistently rotating updraft. Tornadoes are rotating columns of air that extend from storm clouds to the ground. The document also discusses lightning, geographical distributions of thunderstorms, and other characteristics of thunderstorms and tornadoes.
This document provides an overview of thunderstorms and related weather phenomena. It discusses the formation and lifecycle of ordinary cell thunderstorms and multicell thunderstorms. Squall lines and supercell thunderstorms are also described. The document outlines the mechanisms and conditions required for thunderstorm development. It also discusses lightning, thunder, and the global distribution of thunderstorms. Additionally, the key characteristics of tornadoes are presented.
This document discusses hurricanes, including their structure, formation, and naming conventions. It notes that hurricanes are a type of tropical cyclone that forms over warm ocean waters and features heavy rains and strong winds that spiral inward. The document outlines the typical stages of a hurricane's life cycle from formation to maturity to decay. It also describes the vertical structure of hurricanes and notes key factors like sea surface temperature that enable their development. Finally, the document indicates that meteorological organizations name hurricanes to identify and track them, classifying storms on scales of intensity.
Change of meteorological parameters with heightmusadoto
This document discusses the vertical structure and variation of parameters in Earth's atmosphere. It describes how air temperature, pressure, and density decrease with increasing altitude. Temperature typically decreases with height at a dry adiabatic lapse rate of 1°C per 100 meters or a moist adiabatic lapse rate of 0.5°C per 100 meters. Inversions can occur where temperature increases with height. Air pressure and density are greatest at Earth's surface and decrease exponentially with altitude due to the decreasing weight of the overlying air.
This document provides an overview and summary of aerodynamic data for various space vehicles. It begins with a preface describing the history and development of understanding planetary motion from a geocentric to heliocentric model. It then presents aerodynamic data for several types of space vehicles, including capsules, probes, winged vehicles, and airbreathing hypersonic vehicles. The data includes configurational details, coefficients of steady and unsteady aerodynamic forces, and other technical specifications. The intent is to provide graduate students and engineers with reference aerodynamic information to support new space vehicle design projects.
1. The document discusses the structure and composition of Earth's atmosphere. It is divided into multiple layers based on temperature and composition.
2. The lower layers, the troposphere and stratosphere, are where most atmospheric processes occur. The troposphere extends to around 12km and temperatures decrease with height. The stratosphere extends to around 50km, and temperatures increase with height.
3. Above these layers are the mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. These thinner layers have specific characteristics like decreasing then increasing temperatures and ionization that influence phenomena like the aurora borealis and radio communications.
This document appears to be a master's thesis that analyzes potential cooperation between the EU and Egypt on solar energy development. It begins with an introduction that outlines the research questions and objectives. It then describes the qualitative research method used, which involves analyzing secondary data from academic and news sources to understand the context and perspectives around this issue. The literature review covers:
1) The current situation around climate change in Europe and the MENA region and their respective energy needs and policies.
2) The potential for international agreements between the EU and MENA countries on energy issues.
3) The role that solar energy could play and different policy mechanisms to support it.
4) Egypt's potential and challenges as a
This document provides an introduction and background for a report that assesses the sensitivity of different daylight metrics. It will evaluate the Daylight Factor (DF), Continuous Daylight Autonomy (DAcon), and Continuous Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDIcon) metrics through parametric simulations. The introduction defines each metric and notes limitations of the static DF metric, including that it does not consider location, orientation, weather, or direct sunlight. It hypothesizes that dynamic metrics like DAcon and UDIcon may be more suitable for standard use. The methods section will describe the simulations that vary parameters like location, orientation, room depth, window area and type to analyze sensitivity of the metrics.
This document provides an overview of meteorological disasters including cyclones, tornadoes, hail storms, hurricanes, and blizzards. It begins with defining meteorological disasters and listing their main types. Subsequent chapters discuss the formation, characteristics, major events, and mitigation methods for each disaster type. For cyclones, specifics covered include typical structure and movement, classification systems used in India, and details on major cyclones like Hudhud. The document aims to inform about these destructive weather phenomena and how their impacts can be reduced.
The document provides information about different types of winds and storms like cyclones, thunderstorms, tornadoes, and wind. It includes a student's name, class, roll number, and science group. The document then discusses learning objectives, textbook information, and exercises related to these atmospheric phenomena. Examples of how cyclones form and their destructive impacts are provided. Safety precautions for thunderstorms and explanations for various natural phenomena are also summarized.
This document discusses basic analytical methods used in meteorology for weather forecasting. It covers forecasting methods such as persistence, trend, synoptic, and numerical forecasting. It also discusses forecast types including nowcasting, short-range, medium-range, and long-range forecasts. Forecasting tools like meteograms, soundings, thickness charts, and weather maps are explained. Pressure analysis techniques including plotting isobars and identifying high and low pressure systems are also summarized.
This thesis examines the relationship between changing air temperatures and snowfall season characteristics in British Columbia, Canada from 1962 to 1989. Daily temperature and snowfall data from 8 stations across the province were analyzed. Trend analysis found that average annual air temperatures increased at all stations over the study period. Most stations showed later snow starting dates, earlier snow ending dates, and shorter snowfall seasons. Correlation analysis revealed that snowfall season length was most significantly affected by rising air temperatures, though the impact varied spatially due to complex topography and atmospheric patterns. Overall, the study suggests British Columbia experienced a declining snowfall season associated with higher air temperatures in recent decades.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
This thesis examines correlations between solar activity and supernova trigger events detected by the IceCube neutrino observatory. The author analyzes solar data from 2012-present and finds correlations between supernova triggers and increased sunspot numbers, solar radio flux, solar x-ray flux, and solar proton events. The author concludes the triggers are likely results of high-energy neutrino production in the sun that increases with solar activity.
The document discusses various weather hazards for aviation. It begins by explaining how weather affects aircraft operation in terms of lift, drag, thrust and weight. It then discusses important observed weather elements for aviation like wind, visibility, clouds and pressure readings. Several dangerous weather systems are also covered such as thunderstorms, turbulence and icing. Specific thunderstorm hazards like severe turbulence, hail and lightning are explained. The document concludes by discussing techniques for flying in thunderstorm conditions and details different types of turbulence hazards.
The document discusses various topics related to meteorology and oceanography (METOC) support for military operations. It defines key METOC terms like wind speed, temperature, precipitation and atmospheric pressure. It describes environmental satellite capabilities for observing clouds, oceans and temperatures. The effects of weather on military operations are also summarized, such as how visibility, wind and cloud cover can impact sensors, targeting and force protection. Naval Oceanography is discussed as providing information dominance through products on their website to advise Navy operations.
This document is an introduction to gaseous ionization and ion transport for graduate students, with a focus on non-equilibrium low temperature discharges. The preface provides background on the importance and prevalence of plasmas and gas discharges in technologies and the universe. It acknowledges references used and invites feedback to improve the document. Chapter 1 defines gas discharges as electrical flows through insulating gases made conductive by an applied electric field generating ions.
Similar to ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology (20)
The design of Farm cart 0011 report 1 2020musadoto
This report describes the best designing of a 200cc FARM CART MACHINE which will be useful to the farm fields due to the fact that, the purchase, repair and maintenance are affordable to all level of income earners. Despite the cost effectiveness of the machine, the report also tries to justify that the machine can be used multipurposely as it serves the purposes of been used as farm transport, mowering machine, boom spraying and or mini planter with two rows. All these can be achieved as long as the implements are attached with respect to the power capacity of the farm cart.
The report tells only the design and testing of machine excluding its farm implements design. Some best reviews from other study projects done by other people in the world provided a good reference for designing and implementation of this project. The project is initially costly because it needs to develop a prototype and test the different first ideas.
The project report describes the important of choosing to use the designed farm cart machine compared to other farm machines at the market which are most efficiently to be used by farmers in their fields.
The challenges are inevitable in any project, here in designing of this 200cc farm machine, the major issue is the funding because the fund for this project is from the pocket which is always insufficient as it depends to the meals and accommodation money distribution sponsored from the HIGH EDUCATION STUDENTS LOAN BOARD (HESLB) thus it takes longer to accomplish the project by waiting another quarter of the semester to continue with the project which affects the other part of normal life(in terms of meals and accommodation).
The report recommends that, the department of engineering sciences and technology and Sokoine University of Agriculture as a whole should invest into this technology by utilizing fully the idea and funding the project for more better improvement so as to attain the desired standard that can with stand the different farm field factors. These when taken into consideration there is a possibility to achieve the industrialization policy in our country and thereafter it is a better approach to modern agriculture.
IRRIGATION SYSTEMS AND DESIGN - IWRE 317 questions collection 1997 - 2018 ...musadoto
This document contains sample exam questions for a course on irrigation systems design. It includes multiple choice and short answer questions testing understanding of key irrigation concepts. Some example questions are on pump characteristics, calculating water requirements for drip and sprinkler systems, estimating consumptive water use, and determining system efficiencies. The document provides a compilation of past exam questions from 1997 to 2018 to help students prepare for tests.
CONSTRUCTION [soil treatment, foundation backfill, Damp Proof Membrane[DPM] a...musadoto
With reference to a construction site visited recently, describe in details key features
that can be observed on site as follows
Foundations backfilling, hardcore, soil treatment, DPM and BRC works prior
to pouring oversite concrete
CONSTRUCTION [soil treatment, foundation backfill, Damp Proof Membrane[DPM] and BRC for engineers (civil)
BASICS OF COMPUTER PROGRAMMING-TAKE HOME ASSIGNMENT 2018musadoto
Self- Check 1
Which of the following are Pascal reserved words, standard identifiers, valid identifiers, invalid identifiers?
end ReadLn Bill
program Sues‟s Rate
Start begin const
Y=Z Prog#2 &Up
First Name „MaxScores‟ A*B
CostaMesa,CA Barnes&Noble CONST
XYZ123 ThisIsALongOne 123XYZANSWER
ANSWERS
Paschal reserved words:
begin, end, program, Start, CONST, const
Standard identifiers:
ReadLn, „MaxScores‟, Bill, Rate
Valid identifiers:
XYZ123, ThisIsALongOne, A*B, Y=Z, CostaMesa, CA, First Name
Invalid identifiers:
123XYZ, Sues‟s, &UpFirstName, Barnes&Noble, Prog#2
Self- Check 2
Which of the following literal values are legal and what are their types? Which are illegal and why?
15 „XYZ‟ „*‟
$25.123 15; -999
.123 „x‟ “X”
„9‟ „-5‟ True
ANSWER:
The following values are legal and their type
Legal
Type
Illegal
15
Integer literal
$25.123
„XYZ‟
String Literal
.123
„X‟
Character Literal
„9‟
True
Boolean Literal
15;
-999
Integer Literal
-„5‟
Operator literal
„*‟
TP- Lecture 4.2
Self- Checked 1
Which of the following are valid program headings? Which are invalid and why?
(i) Program program; - INVALID using reserved ID
(ii) program 2ndCourseInCS; -INVALID because starts with digit
(iii) program PascalIsFun;- VALID program heading
(iv) program Rainy Day; -INVALID – contains space
Self- Checked 2
Rewrite the following code so that it has no syntax errors and follows the writing conventions we adopted
(i) Program SMALL;
VAR X, Y, Z : real;
BEGIN
Y := 15.0;
Z := -Y + 3.5;
X :=Y + z;
writeln (x, Y, z);
END.
ANSWER:
Program
ENGINEERING SYSTEM DYNAMICS-TAKE HOME ASSIGNMENT 2018musadoto
1. Read Chapter 4 – System Dynamics for Mechanical Engineers by Matthew Davies and Tony L. Schmitz and implement Examples 4.1 to 4.12 in Matlab.
2. Read Chapter 7 – System Dynamics for Mechanical Engineers by Matthew Davies and Tony L. Schmitz and implement Examples 7.1 to 7.11 in Matlab.
3. Read Chapter 9 – System Dynamics for Mechanical Engineers by Matthew Davies and Tony L. Schmitz and implement Examples 9.1 to 9.6 in Matlab.
4. Read Chapter 11 – System Dynamics for Mechanical Engineers by Matthew Davies and Tony L. Schmitz and implement Examples 11.1 to 11.7 in Matlab.
5. Read Chapter 2 - System Dynamics for Engineering Students: Concepts and Applications by Nicolae Lobontiu and attempt problem 2.18 (page 63).
6. Read Chapter 3 - System Dynamics for Engineering Students: Concepts and Applications by Nicolae Lobontiu and attempt problem 3.13 (pp 98 - 100).
7. Read Chapter 4 - System Dynamics for Engineering Students: Concepts and Applications by Nicolae Lobontiu and attempt problem 4.20 (page 146).
8. Read Chapter 5 - System Dynamics for Engineering Students: Concepts and Applications by Nicolae Lobontiu and attempt problems 5.15 (page 198), 5.21 (pp 199 - 200) and 5.27 (pp 201 – 202).
Hardeninig of steel (Jominy test)-CoET- udsmmusadoto
The document describes a Jominy end-quench test experiment to measure the hardenability of two steel samples. Steel samples A and C were heated to the austenite temperature and quenched with water at one end. Hardness measurements using the Rockwell C scale were taken at intervals along the samples. Sample A showed little variation in hardness, while hardness decreased with distance from the quenched end for sample C. A graph of hardness versus distance revealed that sample A has higher hardenability, retaining hardness further from the quenched end. The hardenability indices at 50HRC were determined to be 2mm, 5mm, and 6.5mm from the graph.
1.1 The aim of the experiment
The aim of the experiment is to test the usefulness of the ultrasonic waves, by passing them through different
solids one can find out a lot of physical properties like young’s modulus , defects, Poisson ratio, Velocity of
sound in respective material this is due to the response of the received ultrasonic waves.
1.2 Theory of experiment
Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques based on the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested. In most common UT applications, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz, and occasionally up to 50 MHz, are transmitted into materials to detect internal flaws or to characterize materials. A common example is ultrasonic thickness measurement, which tests the thickness of the test object, for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.
Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys, though it can also be used on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less resolution. It is used in many industries including steel and aluminium construction, metallurgy, manufacturing, aerospace, automotive and other transportation sectors.
Ae 219 - BASICS OF PASCHAL PROGRAMMING-2017 test manual solutionmusadoto
Whether the Pascal program is small or large, it must have a specific structure. This
program consists mainly of one statement (WRITELN) which does the actual work
here, as it displays whatever comes between the parentheses. The statement is
included inside a frame starting with the keyword BEGIN and ending with the keyword
END. This is called the program main body (or the program block) and usually
contains the main logic of data processing.
1. The background of Fluid Mechanics
2. Fields of Fluid mechanics
3. Introduction and Basic concepts
4. Properties of Fluids
5. Pressure and fluid statics
6. Hydrodynamics
Fluid mechanics (a letter to a friend) part 1 ...musadoto
1. The background of Fluid Mechanics
2. Fields of Fluid mechanics
3. Introduction and Basic concepts
4. Properties of Fluids
5. Pressure and fluid statics
6. Hydrodynamics
Fluids mechanics (a letter to a friend) part 1 ...musadoto
1. The background of Fluid Mechanics
2. Fields of Fluid mechanics
3. Introduction and Basic concepts
4. Properties of Fluids
5. Pressure and fluid statics
6. Hydrodynamics
Fresh concrete -building materials for engineersmusadoto
CONCRETE
is a building Material made from a mixture of gravel ,sand ,cement,water and air ,forming a stone like mass on hardenning.
FRESH CONCRETE
It is a concrete that has not reached the final setting time.
Course Contents:
Introduction; Linear measurements; Analysis and adjustment of measurements, Survey methods: coordinate systems, bearings, horizontal control, traversing, triangulation, detail surveying; Orientation and position; Areas and volumes; Setting out; Curve ranging; Global Positioning system (GPS); Photogrammetry.
Fresh concrete -building materials for engineersmusadoto
General introduction
CONCRETE
is a building Material made from a mixture of gravel ,sand ,cement,water and air ,forming a stone like mass on hardenning.
FRESH CONCRETE
It is a concrete that has not reached the final setting time.
DIESEL ENGINE POWER REPORT -AE 215 -SOURCES OF FARM POWERmusadoto
The diesel engine (also known as a compression-ignition or CI engine), named after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel which is injected into the combustion chamber is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to mechanical compression (adiabatic compression). Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a high degree that atomised diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber ignites spontaneously. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as a petrol engine (gasoline engine) or gas engine (using a gaseous fuel as opposed to petrol), which use a spark plug to ignite an air-fuel mixture. In diesel engines, glow plugs (combustion chamber pre-warmers) may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, or both. The original diesel engine operates on the "constant pressure" cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock.
A diesel engine built by MAN AG in 1906
Detroit Diesel timing
Fairbanks Morse model 32
The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency (engine efficiency) of any practical internal or external combustion engine due to its very high expansion ratio and inherent lean burn which enables heat dissipation by the excess air. A small efficiency loss is also avoided compared to two-stroke non-direct-injection gasoline engines since unburned fuel is not present at valve overlap and therefore no fuel goes directly from the intake/injection to the exhaust. Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) can have a thermal efficiency that exceeds 50%.[1][2
Farm and human power REPORT - AE 215-SOURCES OF FARM POWER musadoto
Farm is an area of land and its building, used for growing crops a rearing of animals or an area of land
that is devoted primarily of agricultural process with the primary objective of producing food and other
commercial crops. Or an area of water that is devoted primarily to agricultural process in order to
produce and manage such commodities as fibers, grains, livestock or fuel.
The process of working the ground, planting seeds and growing of planting known as farming.it can
described s raising of animals for milk and meat as farming.
ENGINE POWER PETROL REPORT-AE 215-SOURCES OF FARM POWERmusadoto
What is an Engine?
Before knowing about how the Petrol Engine works, let's first understand what an engine is. This is common for both petrol and diesel engines alike. An engine is a power generating machine which converts potential energy of the fuel into heat energy and then into motion. It produces power and also runs on its own power.
The engine generates its power by burning the fuel in a self-regulated and controlled „Combustion‟ process. The combustion process involves many sub-processes which burn the fuel efficiently and results in the smooth running of the engine.
These processes include:
The suction of air (also known as breathing or aspiration).
Mixing of the fuel with air after breaking the liquid fuel into highly atomized / mist form.
Igniting the air-fuel mixture with a spark (petrol engine).
Burning of highly atomized fuel particles which results in releasing / ejection of heat energy.
How does an Engine work?
The engine converts Heat Energy into Kinetic Energy in the form of „Reciprocating Motion‟. The expansion of heated gases and their forces act on the engine pistons. The gases push the pistons downwards which results in reciprocating motion of pistons.
This motion of the piston enables the crank-shaft to rotate. Thus, it finally converts the reciprocating motion into the 'Rotary motion' and passes on to wheels.
A petrol engine (known as a gasoline engine in American English) is an internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol (gasoline) and similar volatile fuels.
In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually mixed after compression (although some modern petrol engines now use cylinder-direct petrol injection). The pre-mixing was formerly done in a carburetor, but now it is done by electronically controlled fuel injection, except in small engines where the cost/complication of electronics does not justify the added engine efficiency. The process differs from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the fuel and air, and in using spark plugs to initiate the combustion process. In a diesel engine, only air is compressed
TRACTOR POWER REPORT -AE 215 SOURCES OF FARM POWER 2018musadoto
A tractor is an engineering vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high tractive effort (or torque) at slow speeds, for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery used in agriculture or construction. Most commonly, the term is used to describe a farm vehicle that provides the power and traction to mechanize agricultural tasks, especially (and originally) tillage, but nowadays a great variety of tasks. Agricultural implements 0may be towed behind or mounted on the tractor, and the tractor may also provide a source of power if the implement is mechanised.
The word Tractor is derived prior to 1900, the Machine were known as traction motor (pulling-machine).After the year 1900 both the words are joined by taking ‘Tract’ from Traction and ‘Tor” from motor calling it a Tractor.
In our Country tractors were started manufacturing in real sense after independence and at present we are self-sufficient in meeting demand of country’s requirement for tractors. Our country is basically an agricultural country where 75% of our population is directly or indirectly connected with agriculture. This cannot be produced with our conventional bullock pulled agricultural implements. Tractor is one of the basic agricultural machines
used for speeding up agriculture production.
WIND ENERGY REPORT AE 215- 2018 SOURCES OF FARM POWERmusadoto
Wind is the flow of gases on large scale. On the surface of the earth, wind consists of the bulk movement of air. In outer space, solar wind is the movement of gases and charged particles from the sun though space, while planetary wind is the outgassing of light chemical from a planet’s atmosphere into space. Wind by their spatial scale, their speed, the type of force that cause them, the region in which they occur and their effect. The strongest observed winds on planet in solar system occur on Neptune and Saturn. Winds have various aspects, an important one being its velocity, density of the gas involved and energy content of the wind.
Wind is almost entirely caused by the effects of the sun which, each hour, delivers 175 million watts of energy to the earth. This energy heats the planet’s surface, most intensively at the equator, which causes air to rise. This rising air creates an area of low pressure at the surface into which cooler air is sucked, and it is this flow of air that we know as “wind”. In reality atmospheric circulation is much more complicated and, after rising at the equator air travels pole wards. As it travels the air cools and eventually descends to the earth’s surface at about 30° latitude (north and south), from where it returns once again to the equator (a closed loop known as a Hadley Cell). Similar cells exist between 30° and 60° latitude (the Ferrell Cells) and between 60° latitude and each of the poles (the Polar Cells). Within these cells, the flow of air is further impacted by the rotation of the earth or the "Coriolis Effect". This effect creates a sideways force which causes air to circulate anticlockwise around areas of low pressure in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere
In summary, the origin of winds may be traced basically to uneven heating of the earth’s surface due to sun. This may lead to circulation of widespread winds on a global basis, producing planetary winds or may have a limited influence in a smaller area to cause local winds.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Intended learning outcomes
Upon successful completion of the course, a student should be able to:
Describe the structure of the atmosphere in
different ways
Partition the global energy budget as:
– Short wave radiation
– Long wave radiation
Describe the processes and formation of
certain weather phenomena
Discuss the methods for weather analysis
Ascertain the use of meteorology in aviation
Figure 1 : Urban atmosphere
Source: Modified, Vogt, 2000
ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Course contents
Introduction
Structure of the atmosphere
Global energy budget
Atmospheric processes and weather phenomena
Analytical methods in meteorology
Introduction to Aviation Meteorology
ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Introduction
Are weather and climate the same?
– Now it is so hot here
– It is usually hot in Dar in December
– The sky is cloudy presently
– August is our foggiest month
ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Introduction
Are weather and climate the same?
– Now it is so hot here
– It is usually hot in Dar in December
– The sky is cloudy presently
– August is our foggiest month
Weather is the state of the atmosphere
at some place and time, in terms of
temperature, air pressure, humidity, etc.
ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Introduction
Are weather and climate the same?
– Now it is so hot here
– It is usually hot in Dar in December
– The sky is cloudy presently
– August is our foggiest month
Weather is the state of the atmosphere
at some place and time, in terms of
temperature, air pressure, humidity, etc.
ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Introduction
Are weather and climate the same?
– Now it is so hot here
– It is usually hot in Dar in December
– The sky is cloudy presently
– August is our foggiest month
Weather is the state of the atmosphere
at some place and time, in terms of
temperature, air pressure, humidity, etc.
Figure 2 : Weather or climate
ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Introduction
Are weather and climate the same?
– Now it is so hot here
– It is usually hot in Dar in December
– The sky is cloudy presently
– August is our foggiest month
Weather is the state of the atmosphere
at some place and time, in terms of
temperature, air pressure, humidity, etc.
Figure 2 : Weather or climate
Climate is the mean state of weather elements (e.g. rainfall) over a
period of time
ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Why study Meteorology?
It a science of the atmosphere; widely applied in many sectors:
⇒ Agriculture
⇒ Air transport
Weather and climate affect us
⇒ Drought
⇒ Storms
⇒ Climate change
ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Why study Meteorology?
It a science of the atmosphere; widely applied in many sectors:
⇒ Agriculture
⇒ Air transport
Weather and climate affect us
⇒ Drought
⇒ Storms
⇒ Climate change
ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Why study Meteorology?
It a science of the atmosphere; widely applied in many sectors:
⇒ Agriculture
⇒ Air transport
Weather and climate affect us
⇒ Drought
⇒ Storms
⇒ Climate change
Research and well understanding of the universe
♡ See: Ferguson’s careers in focus: Meteorology
ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Presentation outline
...1 Introduction
...2 What is the atmosphere?
...3 Evolution of the atmosphere
...4 Composition of the atmosphere
...5 The vertical profile of atmosphere by temperature
ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
The Earth’s atmosphere
Figure 3 : The atmosphere of the Earth
Questions to ponder:
What is an atmosphere?
How did it occur?
How is it kept around the Earth?
Why is it so important for living
organisms
ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
The Earth’s atmosphere
Definition
It is the gaseous cover of Earth, rotating with it;
its constituents are kept close to the Earth’s surface by gravity
Higher at the Equator due to centrifugal forces
ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
The Earth’s atmosphere
Definition
It is the gaseous cover of Earth, rotating with it;
its constituents are kept close to the Earth’s surface by gravity
Higher at the Equator due to centrifugal forces
Invisible and odourless
ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
The Earth’s atmosphere
Definition
It is the gaseous cover of Earth, rotating with it;
its constituents are kept close to the Earth’s surface by gravity
Higher at the Equator due to centrifugal forces
Invisible and odourless
Its properties support living organisms
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
General characteristics ...
Medium of complex thermodynamic and mechanical processes which
cause various weather phenomena
Atmospheric dynamics cause weather conditions that affect human
daily life
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
General characteristics ...
Medium of complex thermodynamic and mechanical processes which
cause various weather phenomena
Atmospheric dynamics cause weather conditions that affect human
daily life
Upper layer is less dense, limit between the atmosphere and
interstellar space is difficult to estimate hence its height too
⇒ Multiple reflection and radiant flux from dawn to twilight: 80 km
⇒ Shooting stars observation: 250 km, (Aurora Borealis) and 1000 km (Aurora
Australis)
⇒ Satellite orbits irregularities observation: 3500 km
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
General characteristics ...
Medium of complex thermodynamic and mechanical processes which
cause various weather phenomena
Atmospheric dynamics cause weather conditions that affect human
daily life
Upper layer is less dense, limit between the atmosphere and
interstellar space is difficult to estimate hence its height too
⇒ Multiple reflection and radiant flux from dawn to twilight: 80 km
⇒ Shooting stars observation: 250 km, (Aurora Borealis) and 1000 km (Aurora
Australis)
⇒ Satellite orbits irregularities observation: 3500 km
The atmosphere follows the Earth’s rotation with a velocity of about
300 − 600 km/h (c.f. Earth’s rotation)
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
General characteristics ...
Mass of the atmosphere:
⇒ Given, g = 9.81 ms−1
and the Earth’s radius as, Re = 6.371 x 103
m
⇒ If the average pressure at the surface is, P0 = 1, 013.25 x 102
Nm2
⇒ Then the mass of the atmosphere can be estimated as: Ma = 5.27 x 1018
kg
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
General characteristics ...
Mass of the atmosphere:
⇒ Given, g = 9.81 ms−1
and the Earth’s radius as, Re = 6.371 x 103
m
⇒ If the average pressure at the surface is, P0 = 1, 013.25 x 102
Nm2
⇒ Then the mass of the atmosphere can be estimated as: Ma = 5.27 x 1018
kg
The masses of the Earth’s ocean and the solid crust are respectively
as Mo = 1.35 x 1021
kg; Mc = 5.98 x 1021
kg
50 % of its mass is within the 5.5 km height while 99 % is within a
40 km height
It converts only 3 % of the energy received from the Sun into kinetic
energy
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Evolution of the atmosphere
Figure 4 : Volcano eruption at Mt. Oldoinyo
Lengai
Early atmosphere (4.6 bil. years ago)
⇒ Gases: (H, He, CH4, NH3)
⇒ Source: Earth’s hot surface
The dense atmosphere
⇒ Gases: H20, CO2
⇒ Source: Earth’s hot interior, through
out-gassing
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Evolution of the atmosphere
Figure 4 : Volcano eruption at Mt. Oldoinyo
Lengai
Early atmosphere (4.6 bil. years ago)
⇒ Gases: (H, He, CH4, NH3)
⇒ Source: Earth’s hot surface
The dense atmosphere
⇒ Gases: H20, CO2
⇒ Source: Earth’s hot interior, through
out-gassing
Today’s atmosphere consists mainly of
Nitrogen and Oxygen gases, due to
biological and chemical processes
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Climate change
Figure 5 : Keeling curve
Source: http://co2now.org/
As CO2 increases, Earth’s average
temperature also rises
Climate change is a major and sustained
(over decades or so) change from one
climatic condition to another
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Climate change
Figure 5 : Keeling curve
Source: http://co2now.org/
As CO2 increases, Earth’s average
temperature also rises
Climate change is a major and sustained
(over decades or so) change from one
climatic condition to another
Global warming is that change in which
Earth’s average temperature is increasing
Abrupt climate change is a sudden, rapid
change from one climate state to another
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Composition of the atmosphere
In the lower layers, the atmosphere is composed of:
A mixture of gasses which comprise the dry air
Water in all three phases (vapor, liquid and solid)
Aerosols (solid or liquid particles suspended in air)
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Composition in lower atmosphere
The composition of dry air remains constant until the height of 80 km
and ratio remains the same though density decreases with height
Such atmosphere is well mixed and is termed as homosphere (constant
atmospheric composition)
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Composition in lower atmosphere
The composition of dry air remains constant until the height of 80 km
and ratio remains the same though density decreases with height
Such atmosphere is well mixed and is termed as homosphere (constant
atmospheric composition)
Above the height of 80 km the air composition changes constantly
Such atmosphere is not well mixed and is termed as heterosphere
(variable atmospheric composition)
N2 concentration is controlled by Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil;
tiny ocean-dwelling plankton in oceans and decaying of plant; and
animal matter
Oxygen is a necessary component for the creation and the
maintenance of life on Earth
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
O2 is controlled by photo-dissociation (upper atmosphere); organic
matter decays; breathing; and photosynthesis
Water vapour (H2O) is a very important gas in atmosphere, but
varies greatly in space and time, with a range of 0 − 4 %
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
O2 is controlled by photo-dissociation (upper atmosphere); organic
matter decays; breathing; and photosynthesis
Water vapour (H2O) is a very important gas in atmosphere, but
varies greatly in space and time, with a range of 0 − 4 %
The quantity of water vapor is reduced by height and the rate of
change can be described as:
ez = e0 x 10−z/c
where ez and e0 are the water vapour pressure at height z (in meters)
and at the Earth’s surface respectively, with the constant c to be
equal to 5, 000 m
Processes influencing its concentration include condensation,
evaporation and precipitation. Also sublimation of ice and
evapotranspiration of plants supply the atmosphere with water vapour
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Water vapour supplies the atmosphere with thermal energy, e.g.
latent heat to weather storms (thunderstorms and hurricanes)
H2O is a potent greenhouse gas, strongly absorbing a portion of
Earths outgoing radiant energy
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Water vapour supplies the atmosphere with thermal energy, e.g.
latent heat to weather storms (thunderstorms and hurricanes)
H2O is a potent greenhouse gas, strongly absorbing a portion of
Earths outgoing radiant energy
The greenhouse effect is the trapping of heat energy close to Earth’s
surface, maintaining the average air temperature near the surface
much warmer than it would be otherwise
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is available in small proportion of about 0.04
percent as a natural component. It is also an important natural
greenhouse gas
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Water vapour supplies the atmosphere with thermal energy, e.g.
latent heat to weather storms (thunderstorms and hurricanes)
H2O is a potent greenhouse gas, strongly absorbing a portion of
Earths outgoing radiant energy
The greenhouse effect is the trapping of heat energy close to Earth’s
surface, maintaining the average air temperature near the surface
much warmer than it would be otherwise
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is available in small proportion of about 0.04
percent as a natural component. It is also an important natural
greenhouse gas
However, its concentration has risen by almost 30 % beginning of
measurements at Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii in 1958
Presently, the annual increase is more than 0.5 percent
(2.0 ppm/year); and by the end of this century, its concentration is
likely to exceed 550 ppm
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Earth’s average surface
temperature has warmed by
more than 0.8 ◦
C over the last
100 years; the warming is due to
increase of greenhouse gases
Figure 6 : Processes influencing
concentration of CO2
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Earth’s average surface
temperature has warmed by
more than 0.8 ◦
C over the last
100 years; the warming is due to
increase of greenhouse gases
CO2 enters the atmosphere
through vegetation decay;
volcanic eruption, the exhalation
of animal life, burning of fossil
fuels, and deforestation Figure 6 : Processes influencing
concentration of CO2
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Earth’s average surface
temperature has warmed by
more than 0.8 ◦
C over the last
100 years; the warming is due to
increase of greenhouse gases
CO2 enters the atmosphere
through vegetation decay;
volcanic eruption, the exhalation
of animal life, burning of fossil
fuels, and deforestation
Phytoplankton fixation;
Photosynthesis and chemical
weathering reduce it
Figure 6 : Processes influencing
concentration of CO2
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
The oceans hold more than 50 % of total atmospheric CO2 content
Other greenhouse gases include methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Since 1990s, CH4 has been on increase. Sources appear to be from the
breakdown of plant material by certain bacteria in rice paddies, wet
oxygen-poor soil, biological activity of termites, and biochemical
reactions in the stomachs of cows
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
The oceans hold more than 50 % of total atmospheric CO2 content
Other greenhouse gases include methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Since 1990s, CH4 has been on increase. Sources appear to be from the
breakdown of plant material by certain bacteria in rice paddies, wet
oxygen-poor soil, biological activity of termites, and biochemical
reactions in the stomachs of cows
N2O is also rising at the rate of about one-quarter of a percent.
Sources may be as industrial byproduct, from soil through a chemical
process involving bacteria and certain microbes
Ultraviolet light from the sun destroys nitrous oxide
CFCs was up until mid-1990s with concentration increasing. They
used to be widely used as propellants in spray cans, as refrigerants, as
propellants for the blowing of plastic-foam insulation, and as solvents
for cleaning electronic microcircuit
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
They play a part in destroying the gas ozone in the stratosphere and
have the potential for raising global temperatures
CFCs are gradually being phased out through a global agreement
called the Montreal Protocol
CHFCs as a replacement for CFCs, do not damage stratospheric
ozone, rather they are still powerful greenhouse gases
Ozone (O3) near the Earth’s surface is the primary ingredient of
photochemical smog, pollution which irritates the eyes, throat and
damages vegetation
But about 97% of ozone occurs naturally in the upper atmosphere, as
oxygen atoms combine with oxygen molecules. This ozone shields
plants, animals, and humans from the suns harmful ultraviolet rays
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Impurities from both natural and human
sources are also present in the atmosphere:
soil dust; sea sprays; smoke from forest
fires; and fine ash particles from volcano
Figure 7 : Aerosols
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Impurities from both natural and human
sources are also present in the atmosphere:
soil dust; sea sprays; smoke from forest
fires; and fine ash particles from volcano
Primary aerosols are those emitted directly
in particulate form, whereas, the secondary
are formed from vapour molecules in air
Figure 7 : Aerosols
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Impurities from both natural and human
sources are also present in the atmosphere:
soil dust; sea sprays; smoke from forest
fires; and fine ash particles from volcano
Primary aerosols are those emitted directly
in particulate form, whereas, the secondary
are formed from vapour molecules in air
Several physicochemical processes (e.g.
nucleation, condensation, coagulation)
contribute to change of size and shape of
these particles
Figure 7 : Aerosols
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
The size of aerosols ranges from a few nanometres (nm) to several
tens of micrometers (mm)
Aerosols are removed from the atmosphere mainly through dry and
wet deposition processes
Aerosols have several important impacts on the environment such as:
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
The size of aerosols ranges from a few nanometres (nm) to several
tens of micrometers (mm)
Aerosols are removed from the atmosphere mainly through dry and
wet deposition processes
Aerosols have several important impacts on the environment such as:
⇒ Act as condensation nuclei for cloud formation
⇒ Participate in chemical reactions in the atmosphere and affect the ecosystems
(e.g. ozone hole formation in the stratosphere, eutrophication, acidification)
⇒ Affect human health
⇒ Modify the Sun’s radiation intensity through light scattering and absorption
⇒ Decrease visibility at high ambient particle concentrations
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Table 2 : Main atmospheric composition of the planets
Diameter (km) Dist. to sun (mil. km) Sfc temp. Main comp.
Sun 1, 392 ∗ 103
5, 800
Mercury 4880 58 260∗
Venus 12, 112 108 480 CO2
Earth 12, 742 150 15 N2 O2
Mars 6, 800 228 −60 CO2
Jupiter 143, 000 778 −110 H2 He
Saturn 121, 000 1, 428 −190 H2 He
Uranus 51, 800 2, 869 −215 H2 CH4
Neptune 49, 000 4, 498 −225 N2 CH4
Pluto 3, 100 5, 900 −235 CH4
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Recap
⇒ Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Near the surface, nitrogen
(N2) occupies about 78 %
⇒ Water is the only substance in our atmosphere that is found naturally as a
gas (water vapour), as a liquid (water), and as a solid (ice)
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Recap
⇒ Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Near the surface, nitrogen
(N2) occupies about 78 %
⇒ Water is the only substance in our atmosphere that is found naturally as a
gas (water vapour), as a liquid (water), and as a solid (ice)
⇒ Both water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are important
greenhouse gases
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Recap
⇒ Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Near the surface, nitrogen
(N2) occupies about 78 %
⇒ Water is the only substance in our atmosphere that is found naturally as a
gas (water vapour), as a liquid (water), and as a solid (ice)
⇒ Both water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are important
greenhouse gases
⇒ Ozone (O3) in the stratosphere protects life from harmful ultraviolet (UV )
radiation. At the surface, ozone is the main ingredient of photochemical smog
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Recap
⇒ Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Near the surface, nitrogen
(N2) occupies about 78 %
⇒ Water is the only substance in our atmosphere that is found naturally as a
gas (water vapour), as a liquid (water), and as a solid (ice)
⇒ Both water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are important
greenhouse gases
⇒ Ozone (O3) in the stratosphere protects life from harmful ultraviolet (UV )
radiation. At the surface, ozone is the main ingredient of photochemical smog
⇒ The majority of water vapour on our planet is believed to have come from its
hot interior through out-gassing
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Layers of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is vertically divided
into a series of layers
The layers can be defined due to
changes in: air temperature, gases
composition, or electrical properties
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Layers of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is vertically divided
into a series of layers
The layers can be defined due to
changes in: air temperature, gases
composition, or electrical properties
By temperature variation, the layers
are:
⇒ troposphere
⇒ stratosphere
⇒ mesosphere
⇒ thermosphere
⇒ exosphere
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Troposphere
Up to an altitude of about 11 km, air temperature decreases with
height by 6.5 ◦
C/km since the Earth’s surface warms the air above it
We call the rate as temperature lapse rate
If air temperature increase with height the rate is temperature
inversion. So the lapse rate exhibits daily, seasonal, and spatial
variation
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Troposphere
Up to an altitude of about 11 km, air temperature decreases with
height by 6.5 ◦
C/km since the Earth’s surface warms the air above it
We call the rate as temperature lapse rate
If air temperature increase with height the rate is temperature
inversion. So the lapse rate exhibits daily, seasonal, and spatial
variation
The rising and descending air currents (convection) keeps the
troposphere well stirred. Thus, it contains all of the weather
Wind velocity increases with height due to friction at the Earth’s
surface
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Troposphere
The rising and descending air currents
(convection) keeps the troposphere well
stirred.
Thus, it contains all of the weather
Wind velocity increases with height due
to friction at the Earth’s surface
Figure 9 : Thunderstorm strike in
troposphere
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Troposphere ...
The wind velocity is maximum at the
upper troposphere
The tropopause height is higher above
regions with anticyclone systems (high
pressure) and lower above regions with
cyclone systems(low pressure)
The tropopause is not continuous. At
the breaks the troposphere mixes with
stratosphere; and jet streams exist. A
jet stream is narrow channel of high
winds, often at speeds above 100 knots
Figure 10 : Position of jetstreams at the
troppause height
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Troposphere ..
The tropopause is on averages at 11 − 12 km height over temperate
regions; 7 − 8 km over polar regions; and 16 − 17 km in the equatorial
region
Troposphere is the thinnest of the layers; contains about 80 % of the
mass and almost all of the water vapour
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Troposphere ..
The tropopause is on averages at 11 − 12 km height over temperate
regions; 7 − 8 km over polar regions; and 16 − 17 km in the equatorial
region
Troposphere is the thinnest of the layers; contains about 80 % of the
mass and almost all of the water vapour
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Troposphere ..
The tropopause is on averages at 11 − 12 km height over temperate
regions; 7 − 8 km over polar regions; and 16 − 17 km in the equatorial
region
Troposphere is the thinnest of the layers; contains about 80 % of the
mass and almost all of the water vapour
Air temperatures at the tropopause range from −70 ◦
C or colder over
the tropics, to nearly −40 ◦
C over the poles
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Troposphere ..
The tropopause is on averages at 11 − 12 km height over temperate
regions; 7 − 8 km over polar regions; and 16 − 17 km in the equatorial
region
Troposphere is the thinnest of the layers; contains about 80 % of the
mass and almost all of the water vapour
Air temperatures at the tropopause range from −70 ◦
C or colder over
the tropics, to nearly −40 ◦
C over the poles
The tropopause is generally higher in summer than in winter, and is
expected to rise in warmer climates as well
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Troposphere ..
Troposphere can be easily studied using
an instrument called radiosonde
Radiosonde data include:
⇒ air temperature,
⇒ pressure,
⇒ humidity
It can ascend up to an altitude of about
30 km (see Wyoming data)
Figure 11 : Radiosonde launching
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Stratosphere
The air temperature increases with
height in the stratosphere, hence a
temperature inversion
The inversion region, and the lower
isothermal layer, inhibit vertical
currents from the troposphere
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Stratosphere
The air temperature increases with
height in the stratosphere, hence a
temperature inversion
The inversion region, and the lower
isothermal layer, inhibit vertical
currents from the troposphere
The layer is stratified due to the
inversion; and vertical motion is very
minimal
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Stratosphere
Ozone occurs naturally; and it is responsible for the inversion
Ozone absorbs energetic ultraviolet(UV) solar energy
Ozone is highly concentrated at 25 km level. Maximum stratospheric
air temperature occurs near 50 km since temperature of fewer
molecules of less dense air at 50 km is raised rapidly by absorption of
intense solar energy; More absorption of solar heating energy; and
slow downward transfer of energy
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Stratosphere
Since water vapour is very less (0.05 % of that found near the surface),
stratospheric air is very dry and clouds are very rare, except for
occasional penetrating thunderstorm in the lower stratosphere
A sudden stratospheric warming occurs at a height of 30 km over
polar latitudes. Air temperatures can change dramatically from one
week to the next, by more than 50 ◦
C
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Stratosphere
Since water vapour is very less (0.05 % of that found near the surface),
stratospheric air is very dry and clouds are very rare, except for
occasional penetrating thunderstorm in the lower stratosphere
A sudden stratospheric warming occurs at a height of 30 km over
polar latitudes. Air temperatures can change dramatically from one
week to the next, by more than 50 ◦
C
This could be due to sinking air associated with circulation changes in
late winter or early spring; the poleward displacement of strong jet
stream winds in the lower stratosphere
The stratopause could be at the height of 50 − 55 km and temperature
is close to 0 ◦
C
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Mesosphere
The lowest atmospheric temperature (−90 ◦
C) occurs in this layer
The decrease of temperature with height is partly due to little ozone
to absorb solar radiation;
Hence, the air molecules lose more energy than they absorb resulting
into an energy deficit and cooling
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Mesosphere
Though percentage of nitrogen and oxygen is still about the same as
at sea level, life is difficult here as air is less dense
It is in this layer where meteors heat up and become visible
The mesopause tops the layer and is also the upper limit of the
homosphere
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Thermosphere
In the thermosphere (hot layer), oxygen
molecules absorb energetic solar rays,
Absorption warm the air temperature
Temperatures vary from day to day
since the amount of solar energy
affecting the region is strongly
influenced by solar activity
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Thermosphere
In the thermosphere, the mean free path of molecules is of the order of
a kilometre due to low density (c.f. less than one millionth of a
centimetre at the surface)
The bulk of the ionosphere is in the thermosphere (starts in upper
mesosphere, near 60 km )
It is an electrified region with fairly large concentrations of ions and
free electrons
The dazzling auroras occur over polar regions when charged particles
from the sun interact with air molecules
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Thermosphere
The thermopause is not well defined. It is estimated to be at
500 − 1, 000 km and it changes radically with the amount of sunlight
falling on it. Temperature as well is not well defined either, but values
over 1, 000 ◦
C are sometimes reported
Molecules at the top of the thermosphere can move distances of about
10 km before colliding with other molecules
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Thermosphere
The thermopause is not well defined. It is estimated to be at
500 − 1, 000 km and it changes radically with the amount of sunlight
falling on it. Temperature as well is not well defined either, but values
over 1, 000 ◦
C are sometimes reported
Molecules at the top of the thermosphere can move distances of about
10 km before colliding with other molecules
Thus, many of the lighter and faster-moving molecules travelling in
the right direction actually escape Earth’s gravitational force
The heterosphere then starts from about the base of the thermosphere
to the top of the atmosphere
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Exosphere
Figure 12 : A satellite orbiting
the Earth in the exosphere layer
Atoms and molecules exit into space
The atmosphere gradually gives way to
the radiation belts and magnetic fields
of outer space
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Exosphere
Figure 12 : A satellite orbiting
the Earth in the exosphere layer
Atoms and molecules exit into space
The atmosphere gradually gives way to
the radiation belts and magnetic fields
of outer space
The exosphere represents the upper
limit of our atmosphere
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Recap
⇒ The structure of the Earth’s atmosphere can be described in terms of
variation of some parameters with respect to height from the surface: air
temperature, pressure and density
⇒ In terms of temperature variation, the Earth’s atmosphere consists of layers
like: Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere and Exosphere
⇒ Most of the weather activities occurs in the troposphere, though it is the
thinnest of the layers
⇒ Ozone occurs abundantly in the stratosphere and is the source of the
inversion observed in the layer. Though ozone is concentrated at the level of
about 25 km, the maximum air temperature is found at the upper part of the
layer near 60 km
⇒ However, it is mainly the absorption of sun rays by oxygen molecules that
cause the inversion observed in the thermosphere layer
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Change of atmospheric parameters
The vertical structure of the atmosphere changes continuously but
mainly due to physical parameters like:
⇒ Air temperature
⇒ Air pressure
⇒ Air density
The atmospheric air can be become warmer or cooler from purely
mechanical causes (potential temperature changes)
Inside the atmosphere, air temperature changes continuously
adiabatically
The temperature lapse rate is expressed as:
γ = −δT/δz
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Temperature lapse rate and inversions
The moisture in the atmosphere affects the lapse rate hence its value
for dry and moist air is different:
⇒ Theoretical dry vertical lapse rate equals to 1 ◦
C/100 m
⇒ The moist vertical adiabatic lapse rate occurs in an air mass with water
vapour and during its ascent it is cooled adiabatically
⇒ Due to condensation of water vapour, latent heat is released hence the rate of
temperature decrease with height is smaller:
γ = −0.5 ◦
C/100 m
The ideal law of gasses can be used in conjunction with lapse rate to
estimate air temperature at high altitudes:
p = ρ(R/M) ∗ T or p = ρRa ∗ T
R is the universal gas constant (8.314Jmol−1
K−
1; Ra is the specific
constant of gasses, i.e. 287.05Jkg−
1K−
1 for dry air
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Temperature inversion
Figure 13 : Schematic representation of
temperature inversion
Sometimes a temperature
inversion occurs hence an
inversion layer is created
The layer is characterized by
the height of the inversion
base and its own height
The temperature inversions
can be divided according to
the height at which they
occur as:
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Temperature inversion
Figure 14 : Schematic representation of a
surface - subsidence inversion
Surface inversions
Occur due to cooling of the
Earth’s surface during the
night
Subsidence inversions -
occur when the cold air
masses are descending from
the upper atmosphere to the
Earth’s surface
Subsidence inversions last
longer (few days) than a
surface (hours)
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Temperature inversions
Figure 15 : Schematic representation of a
frontal inversion
Frontal inversions, occur when, at a
specific height in the lower
troposphere, warm air masses
override a cold air layer which
extends to the Earth’s surface
Thermal inversions are not very
deep. The temperature inversion
may occur for a few meters or a few
100 m from the Earth’s surface
An inversion is directly related to
other weather phenomena (e.g. fog),
visibility reduction and air pollution
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Variation of air pressure and density
Figure 16 : Both air pressure and air density decrease
Gravity holds air
molecules close to
Earth’s surface
So squeezing
(compressing) the air
molecules closer together
Gravity also influences
the weight of the air
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Air pressure and density variation
The density of air (or any substance) is determined by the masses of
atoms and molecules and the amount of space between them
So the molecular density of air is the number of molecules in a given
volume
More molecules are near Earth’s surface than at higher levels; air
density is greatest at the surface and decreases upwards
Air molecules are in constant motion. The resulting collision of air
molecules exert a push (force) on the colliding surface
Air molecules occupy space have weight
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Air pressure and density variation
The weight of the air
molecules acts as a force
upon the Earth
Atmospheric pressure
(air pressure) is the
amount of force exerted
over an area of surface
The mass of air above
the surface affects the
surface air pressurendettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Air pressure and density variation
Atmospheric pressure always decreases with increasing height. Like
air density, air pressure decreases rapidly at first, then more slowly at
higher levels
The pressure at any level in the atmosphere may be measured in
terms of the total mass of air above any point
Millibar (mb) is the most common unit used on surface weather maps.
Its metric equivalent is hectopascal (hPa)
The variation of density with height can also be estimated using the
ideal gas equation
Integrate the ideal gas equation to get:
dp = ρRadT + RaTdpndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Air pressure and density variation
When the atmosphere is balanced hydrostatically
dp = −ρgdz
Then, we get:
−ρgdz = ρRadT + RaTdρ
Divide the equation with density (ρ) and rearrange it to get:
d(lnρ) = −g/(RaT) dz − d(lnT)
Suppose the layer examined is isothermal, (i.e. temperature is
constant), then
d(lnρ) = −g/(Ra
¯T) dz
Integrate the equation from z1 = 0 to z2 = z with corresponding
values of density ρ0 and ρz, we finally get:
ρz = ρ0 ∗ e (gz/Ra
¯T)
So in an isothermal atmosphere, the air density decreases
exponentially with heightndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Air pressure and density variation
If the average temperature in the troposphere is about 250 K, one can
show that:
ρz = ρ0 ∗ 10 −(z/17)
Meaning that in the troposphere the air density decreases with a
factor of 10 every 17 km of height (i.e. in the same way as the
pressure)
The change of the atmospheric pressure with height can be easily
estimated by using the hydrostatic equation
dp(z)/dz = −ρ(z)g
And also by using the ideal gas equation:
ρ(z) = Map(z)/RT(z)
We obtain:
dp(z)/dz = Magp(z)/RT(z)
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Air pressure and density variation
Let H(z) = RT(z)/Mag be the characteristic length for the pressure
decrease with height
Then we obtain:
dlnp(z)/dz = −1/H(z)
If the variation of temperature against height is very negligible, the
characteristic length is independent of height
(i.e. H(z) = H = constant)
dp(z)/dz = −ρ(z)g
So upon integrating the equation, we get:
p(z)/p0 = e (z/H)
In the troposphere, the average temperature is about 250 K, one can
also show that:
p(z) = p0 ∗ 10 −(z/17)
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Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure
Review questions
...1 Briefly explain the production and natural destruction of carbon
dioxide near Earths surface. Give two reasons for the increase of
carbon dioxide over the past 100-plus years.
...2 How does the atmosphere protect inhabitants at Earth’s surface
...3 On the basis of temperature, list the layers of the atmosphere from
the lowest layer to the highest.
...4 Even though the actual concentration of oxygen is close to 21 percent
(by volume) in the upper stratosphere, explain why, without proper
breathing apparatus, you would not be able to survive there
...5 Show that between the surface and the height of 11 km, the
temperature (◦
C) at height z is T(z) = 15 − 0.0065z
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