Entero Virus Infection Case Study

Entero Virus Infection Case Study
There are roughly "10 to 15 million infections in the US each year" (University of Wisconsin–
Madison, 2016) due to a non–polio enterovirus infection. The rare strain known as Enterovirus 68 ,
EV–D68 was first isolated in 1962 in the state of California. It is one of a 100 known enteroviruses,
within a group called ssRNA virus that also contains poliovirus, coxsakievirus, and echovirus. EV–
D68 is non–enveloped. Unlink all other enteroviruses it displays acid liability and a lower optimum
growth temperature. Enterovirus D68 was previously called human rhinovirus 87 by researchers.
Multiple outbreaks have been documented in other countries including Europe, Asia and Africa. In
2014 the United States experienced a nationwide outbreak of more than 1,100 people, in 49 states,
were affected by a respiratory illness caused by enterovirus 68. In 2015, zero out ... Show more
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To reduce the spread, treat enterovirus like the flu: wash hands often with soap; avoid touching
mouth, nose and eyes; avoid kissing, hugging, and sharing utensils or cups with people who are
sick; cover coughs and sneezes. Providers and healthcare personnel should use standard precautions.
Even though EV–D68 causes respiratory illness, droplet precautions should also be considered
appropriate infection control. Health care providers should be informed of any EV–D68 infections,
signs and symptoms, the identity of patients and should report any findings patients with
unexplained severe respiratory problems even with the absence of a fever. Providers should consider
diagnostic laboratory testing if respiratory infection causes are unknown. A real–time PCR test to
speed up detection was developed by the CDC. Local health departments may also contact the CDC
for
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Expectancy Theory Research Paper
Expectancy theory proposes that an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are
motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result of
that selected behavior will be. For example, everybody should wash their hands after using the rest
room. Cleaning hands is one of the most important steps to take to avoid getting sick and spreading
germs to others. Many diseases and conditions are spread by not washing hands with soap and
water. One of my good friends Trae, decided to cook shrimp chicken carbonara for lunch last
Saturday. Trae is a little muscled, naturally tan, natural black hair, clean shave, he had on a blue
baggy short and tight white shirt. He has a low fade hair, dark brown eyes. While cooking lunch he
decided to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He's a dirty chef but great cook. I thought about not eating the food but my growing, grumbling
stomach told me other wise. Violation Valence, the perceived positive or negative value assigned to
a breach of expectations, I found it very disgusting that Trae has breached the expectation of not
washing his hands. In our society we are expected to wash our hands, specifically after using the
restroom. A good hand wash can prevent the spreading of diseases, infections that may be
transmitted through touch, salmonellosis, shigellosis, hepatitis A, giardiasis, enterovirus, amebiasis,
and campylobacteriosis. These diseases are spread through the ingestion of even the tiniest particles
of fecal material. Hand washing after using the toilet is very important and cannot be over–
emphasized. Even thought Trae did breach the exception of our society, our relationship didn't
change. We have been friends since elementary and have done a lot of disgusting things together.
Him not washing his hands had no effect on me nor would I judge him because of

Vaccine In The 21st Century
Living in the 21th century is a blessing. Not only do we have advanced technology to help us with
everyday life, we also have great medicine and health care systems, to help us fight what many of
our ancestors didn't know how to secure themselves from. A vaccine is a scientific substance that
provides active immunity to a particular disease. This might be one of the greatest achievements in
the history of medicine.Toward the start of the twentieth century, the life expectancy in the United
States was merely 47 years, but today's babies have a life expectancy of at least 79 years. But what
happens when not everyone decides to comply with these simple prevention methods? In the last
few years, numerous epidemics have resurfaced again and have ... Show more content on
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The first vaccine to ever be created appeared in 1797 for its fight against smallpox, and it has been
getting the job done ever since. But in the last decade, many have taken a stand against government
and the vaccination laws, by not immunizing their kids. The antivaxxer movement has caused a
conundrum for those in the medical field everywhere. Measles, Mumps, Whooping cough,
Smallpox, Polio, and the Bubonic Plague have been recorded all around the world, all because
people have denied the medical preventions. This epidemics are back and stronger than ever, and
those who are not immunized, are in great danger of acquiring and spreading these epidemics. This
is the reason why many of the sicknesses that we thought were eradicated years ago, have come to
infect many people in the 21st century, and why something must be done to end them once and for

Research Paper On Poliomyelitis
The word poliomyelitis is derived from two Greek words, polio meaning grey and myelon meaning
marrow which indicates the spinal cord. The classic manifestation of paralysis is the effect of polio
virus on the spine (Paul, 1971). Ancient records mention crippling diseases compatible with
poliomyelitis. A weakness of the lower limbs in children that was identifiable as poliomyelitis was
first described by Michael Underwood in 1789. The first outbreaks were reported in the early 19th
century and in 1843 in Europe and the United States respectively. For the next century, polio
epidemics were reported from developed countries in the Northern Hemisphere each summer and
fall. As years passed, the severity of the epidemics and the average age of persons affected increased
(Birmingham et al.,1997). This led to an increase in the number of deaths as a resulting from polio.
Polio cases hit a peak in the USA in 1952, where more than 21,000 paralytic cases were reported
(Paul, 1971). However, polio incidence declined rapidly following introduction of ... Show more
The virus is a member of the enterovirus sub–group, family Picornaviridae. Enteroviruses are
transient inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tract, and are stable at acid pH. Picornaviruses are small,
ether–insensitive viruses with an RNA genome (Musa et al., 2009). It is shed in large quantities in
the throat and intestines of infected persons such that a mere gram of stool may contain several
million virus particle (Saunders et al., 2011). Poliovirus exists in three serotypes (P1, P2, and P3)
(Dowdle & Birmingham, 1997). There is marginal heterotypic immunity between the three
serotypes such that immunity to one serotype does not produce substantial immunity to the other
serotypes. The poliovirus is quickly inactivated by formaldehyde, chlorine, ultraviolet light, and heat
(Paul,

Polio Virus Essay
Polio Virus
Introduction
The polio virus which causes poliomyelitis in humans is an enterovirus which belongs to the
picornavirus (small, RNA) family. Polio virus is rapid, acid–resistant, stable, highly tissue specific
and consists of a single–stranded, positive RNA. Polio virus is able to reside in the throat or
intestinal tract of humans. Poliomyelitis is a highly contagious infectious disease which has three
strains, poliovirus 1 (PV1), PV2 and PV3. Polio virus, although rare in developed countries, can be
found in many under–developed countries due to the uncommonness of vaccinations there. Polio is
known as a disease of development. The oldest known record of polio is in an Egyptian stone
engraving of a young priest from 1350 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Receptor–mediated endocytosis is thought to take the receptor into the cell. Polio virus is tissue
tropic, meaning it replicates only in specific tissue types, generally lymphoid tissue in the pharynx
and intestine. After uncoating, polio virus, which is an RNA virus, takes a single RNA molecule in
its protective capsid. This RNA can be converted directly to a protein in the cytoplasm. The virus
must then replicate its RNA using viral RNA–directed RNA polymerase. After replication of its own
RNA, the virus must package the new RNA into capsids in order to infect more cells.
Transmission
After replication in the mouth and intestine, polio virus spreads through the body via the blood.
Polio virus is contained in the Peyer's patches of the small intestine. Transmission to the central
nervous system and neuronal cell destruction is seen in a small number of infected individuals.
Damage
Polio virus affects humans by a lytic cycle. PV1 which is usually associated with epidemics causes
paralysis and consequently the most deaths. PV2 normally causes meningitis and a less severe
paralysis. PV3 is usually associated with sporadic cases of polio virus. The majority of polio cases
include only diarrhea symptoms or the individual is completely asymptomatic. Five percent of polio
cases show flu–like symptoms of fever, malaise, headache, nausea, sore throat, upset stomach, and
achy muscles. In one percent of

Hand, Foot-Mouth Disease
Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease
Francesca Longobardo
Western University of Health Sciences
Senior Seminar
Mr. Medina
November 24, 2014
Student Name: Francesca Longobardo PA–S Date & time of Interview: 11/7/2014 10:40
PATIENT WRITE–UP/SOAP NOTE PRESENTATION
SUBJECTIVE DATA:
Identifying data (ID): 1 y/o male, Hispanic
Chief Complaint (CC): rash x 3days
History of Present Illness (HPI): The child's mother reports that a rash started under the buttocks, the
rash was erythematous and vesiculated. The rash had spread to the palms of his hands and soles of
his feet. The vesicles and ulcers were also located on the buccal mucosa. Very happy and non–
distressed child. He had no other associated symptoms, he was able to eat and drink. ... Show more
This is usually a clinical diagnosis, but can be determined by viral polymerase chain reaction and
ELISA analysis. The best place to culture for viral polymerase chain reaction is the throat. Clinical
presentation tends to be a child with fever and ulcerated rashes that can affect the palms of the hands
and soles of the feet. There are no diagnostic imaging studies that can help determine infection. The
disease is usually treated symptomatically by reducing the fever and introducing fluids to help with
dehydration and making sure the patients intakes proper nutrients. With proper symptomatic
treatment the patient can greatly diminish the severity and enhance the prognosis of the disease.
References
Lin, J.Y., & Shih, S.R. (2014). Cell and tissue tropism of enterovirus 71 and other enteroviruses
infections. Journal of Biomedical Science, 21(18), 1–6.
Repass, G.L., Palmer, W.C., & Stancampiano, F.F. (2014). Hand, foot, and mouth disease:
Identifying and managing an acute viral syndrome. Cleveland Clinic Journal Of Medicine, 81 (9),
537–543.
Hu, P., Hou, S., Du, P.F., Li, J.B., & Ye, Y. (2012). Paroxysmal Supraventricular Tachycardia in an
Infant with Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease. Annals of Dermatology 24( 2), 200–202
Tan, C. H., Lai, J.K.F., Sam, I.C., & Chan, Y.F. (2014), Recent developments in antiviral agents
against enterovirus 71 infection,

Healthy People 2020
One important Healthy People 2020 initiative to discuss is the prevention of Sexually Transmitted
Infections. The goal set through Healthy People 2020 (2015) is, "To promote healthy sexual
behaviors, strengthen community capacity, and increase access to quality services to prevent
sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and their complications." This health care initiative is
important through–out the lifespan. It is important when trying to prevent transmission from mother
to child and during sexual contact between adolescents, young adults, middle–aged adults, and the
elderly. During the pregnancy and birthing process it is important to identify TORCH infections that
can be acquired congenitally from mother to offspring. These infections can be transmitted during
the birthing process and through breast feeding. It requires important education and prevention
measures to help reduce the risk of morbidity and mortality (Stegmann & Carey, 2002). This group
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Over one million cases of Chlamydia were reported to the CDC in 2013. Despite this large number
of reports it actually was a decrease by 1.5% since 2012 (CDC, 2014). Epidemiology statistics
showed an increase in reported syphilis, including congenital. Other sexually transmitted diseases
can pose higher risks for acquiring HIV. According to new studies, HIV is growing faster in
populations that are over 50 versus 40 years and younger (BenRose, 2014). Factors may play a role
in this such as higher divorce rates, new medications, and safe sex measures. Therefore, it is
important for the healthcare provider screen for sexual activity and any change in sexual partners to
provide routine testing when necessary and education on preventive

Typhoid Mary: The Most Dangerous Woman In America
The film Typhoid Mary: The Most Dangerous Woman in America documents the typhoid fever
outbreak of 1906 that was linked to a cook named Mary Mallon. Typhoid fever is caused by
Salmonella typhi, a bacterium found in the bloodstream and intestinal tract of humans. Mary Mallon
unknowingly infected several families with typhoid fever, including one family in Oyster Bay. This
family hired George Soper, a typhoid researcher, to investigate the cause of the illnesses in the
family. Upon further analysis, Soper hypothesized that the new cook Mary Mallon was infecting
people through food she prepared after using the bathroom. Although she washed her hands, she did
not vigorously scrub under her nails and over her hands to adequately rid her skin of the bacteria.
This led to the spread of typhoid fever among families she worked for and ... Show more content on
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In theory, this would be the ideal situation but in Mary's case, this could not be done. After the first
quarantine Ms. Mallon had the chance to live freely and have a job as a laundress. However, she was
not satisfied with the pay and decided to work as a cook once more under an alias. Her actions
resulted in another outbreak of typhoid fever and three more deaths. Some consider her actions as a
simple effect of her living conditions while others believe she had a blatant disregard for public
safety. She seemed to be willfully ignorant and shut down any attempt at explanation of why she
was a healthy carrier. The fact that she refused to listen and endangered the lives of the public makes
for an easy indication on why she had to be quarantined again. Her actions can be compared to the
criminality of those with HIV/AIDS who have unprotected sexual relations without telling their
partner(s) of their HIV status. She knew she was not allowed to be a cook, but she was in denial that
she caused the outbreaks and took a cooking job

Respiratory Infection Paper
The Common Cold or Upper Respiratory Infection is as new to man, as is sickness itself. Most
Americans at one point or another have come in contact with the Common Cold or have had a
Respiratory Infection. Often, the Common Cold or Upper Respiratory Infection occurs during flu or
winter season and is transmitted by contact or non–contact. Like other illnesses, this disease can be
life threatening if not treated properly and can lead to other serious illness, including death. This
disease is often thought of as not being serious; however, it poses a serious threats to all ages. The
Common Cold is an infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract, and is caused by a rhinovirus.
At the current time, there is no cure for the common cold, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
12–35%, these numbers may not appear to be large, but they are rather serious numbers.
Approximately one billion cases of the Common Cold occur annually in the United States,
according to population estimates (Klemas, N., 2015). Many people never go to the Emergency
Room, Hospital, or even the Doctor's office for treatment; often, brushing the infection off and later
suffering even more from the disease. Any time a virus is contracted, one should always seek
professional help.
Even though there is said to be more than 100 viruses that cause a Common Cold, the rhinovirus is
generally the culprit that enters the body through the eyes, mouth, or nose. The rhinovirus–
(Enterovirus/Picornaviridae) is one of the smallest viruses that can enter the body and cause a
Common Cold. The signs and symptoms of this mild contagious infection are nasal inflammation,
weakness, cough, and low–grade fever. Approximately 28% of annual over–the–counter medication
expenditures are for the cold (Klemas, N., 2015). Over–the–counter medications do not always work
for this

The Effects of Genetic and Environmental Factors on Type 1...
The Effects of Genetic and Environmental Factors on Type 1 Diabetes
Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder, in which the pancreas does not produce insulin. It
usually begins in childhood or adolescence. In Type 1 diabetes, the body's immune system destroys
beta cells in the pancreas that produce insulin. Insulin is a hormone that converts sugar, starches, and
food into energy. Without insulin, blood glucose levels become too high, which is known as
hyperglycemia. To prevent hyperglycemia, people with Type 1 diabetes must take insulin daily to
survive. Genetic and environmental factors affect the onset of Type 1 diabetes. [1] According to the
American Diabetes Association, a predisposition to Type 1 diabetes is ... Show more content on
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The research on the affect of viruses in triggering Type 1 diabetes is inconclusive, and some is even
contradictory. Some researchers have also found that viruses may prevent Type 1 diabetes. Scientists
at Joslin Diabetes Center add trauma as a potential trigger of Type 1 diabetes. A traumatic event,
such as a body trauma or a car crash, increases the body's insulin requirement and strains the
pancreas. [5] Dr. James H. Warram at the Joslin Diabetes Center concluded that the trauma does not
cause diabetes, but it can trigger the onset of the disease.
Another possible environmental cause of Type 1 diabetes is early diet. Breastfeeding for at least
three months has shown to decrease the risk of Type 1 diabetes, and a diet including cow's milk
before the age of one year old may increase the risk of diabetes. The American Diabetes Association
reports that the onset of Type 1 diabetes occurs more often in winter than in summer. It is also more
prevalent in cold climates. This leads researchers to conclude that cold weather may be a possible
trigger of Type 1 diabetes, as well. [6] Dr. Andrew Weil (2014) explains that in addition, "Weather
has an impact on eating and exercise habits, which can in turn influence how well you're able to
control your blood sugar." (drweil.com, 2014) The phenotype for Type 1 diabetes includes the
presence of autoantibodies in the body. [7] These autoantibodies prevent the pancreas from
adequately

Poliomyelitis Case Study
In Senator Barbara Boxer's letter to Director Frieden, she addresses the issue on the rare polio– like
disease that has affected at least twenty children in California over the last eighteen months. This
polio–like disease is causing paralysis in one or more of the children's limbs. Senator Barbara is
concerned that the CDC is not taking action on researching what is causing this horrible disease and
she wants to know what they are doing to find answers (Longest, 2016, p.272). Senator Barbara is
urging the CDC to investigate this rare polio–like disease. Barbara is requesting that the CDC
undertake a geographic analysis of where these cases are occurring in California (2017). Senator
Boxer is also requesting that the CDC answer several questions ... Show more content on
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Scientists have been trying to determine what caused the polio–like paralysis that first started with
cold like symptoms. In an updated article in the San Francisco Chronicle, 2/27/2014, scientists
believe there is a link with the virus Enterovirus D68 but the evidence is circumstantial. More
research needs to be done to determine if the new strains of the old virus is causing polio–like
paralysis in children (Allday, 2017). The CDC has reported this outbreak has occurred in more than
40 states and at least 200 cases reported. Research is finding the D68 enterovirus is related to the
virus that causes unexplained paralysis in arms and legs. Researchers believe that once the
enteroviruses move outside the gut or airways it can then go after the nerve cells in the spine that
control

Picornaviridae Research Paper
Picornaviridae Enterovirus Mandragorae
(Family, Genus, Mandrake– the cure for petrification)
Jonathan Bowden age 8 came in August 13, with slight respiratory problems. After taking a
Multiplex PCR test (a way to amplify DNA in samples using primers and temperature–mediated
DNA polymerase in a thermal cylinder), results came back high in a certain class of viruses:
rhinovirus and enterovirus. The test doesnt tell us which is which, but knowing rhinovirus was more
of a late fall/ winter problem. We were right in the midst of the enterovirus season. Although PEM is
rare, its been on the rise, at least 500 children in 42 states contracted the virus in the past three
months.
PEM attacks the respiratory system and causes symptoms seen in the

How Poliomyelitis Is A Contagious And Aggressive Virus
Poliomyelitis is a highly contagious and aggressive virus which attacks motor neurones attached to
the spinal chord and brainstem. There is no cure for Polio however there is a vaccine which contains
a mixture of live and weakened strains of the three types of polio; Bulbar polio, spinal polio and
bulbospinal polio. Poliomyelitis is an aggressive virus which is able to pass through the three line of
defence. It is passed through the first line by the faecal/oral route and enters the bloodstream. It
invades the T and B cells which are activated in the innate immune system and is fought by the
antibodies in the stage of the Adaptive immune system, where symptoms are already exposed. In
order to eradicate Polio more accessible treatment in developing countries as well as better
sanitation is needed.
Poliomyelitis, or Polio is a highly contagious disease caused by the Polio virus, which can affect the
spinal cord and brainstem. Although 90 – 95 % of who are acutely affected by Polio are
Asymptomatic, 5 – 10% experience mild symptoms such as a head ache, fever, fatigue, throat pain
and stomach pain and 0.5 % experience muscle symptoms such as muscle weakness, muscle
spasming/twitching, loss of muscle tone and complete loss of movement in muscles. If the virus
makes it's way into the brain or spinal cord it can cause paralysis and even death. As mentioned
before the disease spreads very easily between person to person, particularly affecting infants
younger than 6 months. There

A Brief Look at Polio
INTRODUCTION
Polio or poliomyelitis was derived from the Greek words "polio" meaning grey and "myelos"
meaning marrow which refers to the grey matter of the spinal cord and 'itis' meaning inflammation;
therefore poliomyelitis is inflammation of grey matter of the spinal cord (www.wikipedia.com). It is
a viral disease caused by the polio virus which belongs to the enterovirus genus; enterovirus because
it infects and replicates in the intestinal epithelial and lymphoid (tonsils, Peyer's patches) cells or
tissues, they then enter the central nervous system (CNS) through the blood and infect the motor
neurons. The replication in tonsils results in virus seen in pharyngeal secretions (Clinical
Microbiology by Mark Gladwin and Bill Trattler). The three serotypes of polio virus are type 1, 2
and 3, all three can cause and produce the same symptom with type 1 the most common form and
mostly associated with paralysis. Polio was one of the most feared childhood diseases of the 20th
century; it affected mostly children under the age of five. Most children who were infected at this
stage were asymptomatic or showed mild flu like symptoms and few paralytic complications were
seen among infected children and those who survived the polio attack developed lifelong immunity
to the virus. As improvements in sanitation were made over the years, fewer children were exposed
to polio virus infection but adolescents and adults became infected through their contact with
infected individuals and

Informative Speech On Enterovirus
As a single mother of two boys, five and thirteen, I have seen and heard a lot about a virus called the
enterovirus. Not really quite understanding what I was hearing on the news and reading in the
newspaper I wanted to learn more. I am the type of person who worries over everything and with
every little cough or running nose my child has I couldn't help but wonder if I should be calling the
doctor to get them in to double check their symptoms. Of course my oldest son thinks I am over
reacting and proceeds to give me the "oh mom look" along with the rolling of the eyes and all,
anytime I bring up the fact that I am worried about them developing something then the common
cold. Being a parent, one of my biggest concerns, is that I will misjudge ... Show more content on
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If you come into contact with someone who sneezes or coughs on you that is infected or you touch
an infected surface. Most people will be sick for about a week but the virus can stay in the body for
several weeks, meaning that they could be getting other people sick even if they are feeling better.
When going to see your physician for symptoms described above, you may wonder how the
enterovirus is determined. Generally enterovirus infections are most often diagnosed by clinical
symptoms. Blood tests are done infrequently; the best test is polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that is
available from specialized laboratories and used most often during outbreaks of viral infections. In
addition, it is useful to distinguish between enterovirus infections and other viral infections like
rotavirus and influenza viruses. Infrequently, the infecting enterovirus will be isolated by cell
cultures taken from the blood, feces, or cerebrospinal fluid and then identified by further
immunologic tests. Other tests such as chest X–rays, echocardiography, lumbar puncture, and ECGs
may help determine the extent of infection (medicinenet). There is no specific medications that will
treat the enterovirus D68. The best bet is to get plenty of rest and drink lots of fluids. Over–the–
counter pain reliever is a good thing to take to help relieve the body aches and help with

Praxis And Synergy In Health Care
Modules of Potentiation: praxis and synergy in public health complex emergency interventions
The UN defines complex emergencies (CE) as, "a major humanitarian crisis, of a multi–causal
nature that requires a system–wide response." I set out to determine if public–health interventions in
complex emergency settings are useful; if so, how can they be efficaciously implemented. I
hypothesize that a triad of multilateral military actors, international health institutions, and civilian
humanitarian organizations− working as a closely coordinated coalition will optimize health
outcomes. Via an aggregation of current peer reviewed articles, I have found the most vital, practical
and effective modules for health interventions in CEs. These modules ... Show more content on
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A disease caused by the bacteria V. cholerae which discharges a toxin causing an increased release
of water from cells in the intestines resulting in severe diarrhea and dehydration, if left untreated,
cholera can be fatal in hours even in previously healthy people. To date, research on cholera
indicates an annual global infection rate in the range of 3–5 million cases and 100,000–120,000
mortalities, (WHO estimates 5–10% of cases are reported). Endemic in developing and
underdeveloped regions, risk of contracting cholera increase in populations effected by complex
emergencies, particularly among refugees and internally displaced people. Unfortunately, according
to the WHO incidences of cholera increased 130% from 2000 to 2010 and this number is expected
to increase as greater numbers of people experience complex emergencies and other humanitarian

Evaluating Online Health Information
Unit 2 Discussion 1 – Evaluating Online Health Information Coming from a background heavy in
NICU and pediatric homehealth experience, I chose to create a hypothetical situation that related to
a common problem that many children contract and spread. My demographic area has a large
population of immigrants and lower income families, so education and effective communication is a
must. Billy is a 3 year old little boy who until recently has been a happy, playful child. He is
presenting with malaise, fever, and what appears to be tiny, red blisters in his mouth and throat and
beginning on his hands and feet that are painful to the touch. His mother states that he has felt bad
for a couple of days and now doesn 't want to eat or drink. He is also complaining of a "tummy
ache". He attends a daycare with 10 other children. His mother states that she had been "looking
things up on on the internet" and thought Billy at first had the flu. Upon assessment, he is diagnosed
with Coxsackie virus, also known as Hand–Foot–Mouth Disease. As Billy 's mom discovered in her
internet search, "Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease" is just one of many infections that can cause
mouth sores. Often a search for the symptoms of basic medical conditions can lead people to content
on more serious illnesses, therefore increasing their fears that something tragic is occuring. Billy 's
mom was afraid that her son had not the flu, but something much more serious. His diagnosis of
Coxsackie however, relieved her

Honeysweet Plum Trees Chapter 3 Summary
Chapter 7 Article 3: Honeysweet Plum Trees A Transgenic Answer to the Plum Pox Problem
Chapter eight of the textbook, Biosecurity and Bioterrorism Containing and Preventing Biological
Threats, by Jeffrey R. Ryan, goes into extensive detail on the important role that agriculture plays in
the United States food supply. Due to the fact that agriculture plays a large part in the enhancing and
sustaining of society as a whole, it is terrifying when diseases begin to take root. One of the major
threats the United States faces, when it comes to agriculture, is forging animal diseases, or FAD
(Ryan, 2016, p. 187). To better explain, FAD is considered to be serious animal diseases that are not
conceived in the United States (Ryan, 2016,

URI and the Common Cold Virus Essay
URIs, known as the "common cold", are acute, self limiting viral infections of the upper respiratory
tract. Children under six years are infected quite frequently, and experience such colds
approximately 6–8 times per year, with symptoms lasting up to 14 days. Symptoms may include
congestion, rhinorrhea, sneezing, cough, headache, slight fever, and malaise.
Rhinoviruses are responsible for 30–50 percent of the URIs in children and are present year round,
peaking in September, March, and April. Other viruses accounting for URIs in children include
respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), which is common from November to March and in children less
than two years old; Coronaviruses, which are common from November to February; influenza ...
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In children, nasal congestion, rhinorrhea (may be yellow or green after a few days), sneezing, and
cough are the most common symptoms, while fever may be present in the early infection stage.
Other symptoms may include wheezing, sore throat, headache difficulty sleeping, decreased
appetite, cervical lymphadenopathy, intermittently increased middle ear pressure, and conjunctival
injection.
URIs are diagnosed based on history, physical exam, and prior exposure to others affected with URI
like symptoms. While laboratory testing can determine the viral pathogen, it is not done unless it is
necessary. It is important to be mindful of nasal discharge that lasts for longer than ten days without
improving, as this may signify an acute bacterial sinusitis. Additionally, the cough may last for one
to two weeks after other symptoms have subsided, but if the cough worsens or fails to improve,
other diagnoses, such a pertussis, should be discussed. Other complications of URIs include acute
viral otitis media, characterized by new onset fever and earache after experiencing a few days of
cold symptoms; and asthma exacerbations (to be discussed later); bacterial pneumonia, epistaxis,
conjunctivitis, and pharyngitis. As URIs are usually mild and have a self limiting course of illness,
treatment consists of anticipatory guidance and supportive care, which consists of measures that
(have not been proven in randomized controlled trials

Post Polio Research Paper
Epidemics have initial devastating consequences; however, what about the patients that survive?
According to Robin Howard in Poliomyelitis and the Postpolio Syndrome (2005), the World Health
Organization (WHO) discussed a significant drop in polio cases between 1988 and 2003 due to
increased immunizations. WHO identified that although there was a drop from 350,000 to 900 cases
worldwide, polio is still considered an epidemic in six third world countries. While its important to
understand polio and its initial symptoms its equally important to understand that polio survivors
may develop significant symptoms decades later; this classified as PPS. Suffers are more likely to
have surgical procedures related to their age as a result of deterioration. Although polio has lost its
grip on the world population as an imminent epidemic threat, the potential for anesthesia providers
to encounter PPS patients is real and present. If health care providers want to avoid the cliché
"history repeats itself," its imperative to understand PPS is present and can be invisible.
Polio
Understanding post–polio syndrome cannot be explained without investigating polio. Polio, also
known as paralytic poliomyelitis, which was a devastating epidemic that resulted in patients
suffering paralysis and possibly death. Richard Underwood, a ... Show more content on
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The polio virus helped to lay the road for the sanitation reform because it was transmitted by fecal–
oral route. During the incubation phase of 7 to 14 days, replication occurred in the pharynx and
intestines before initiating an immune response. Donna Wheeler (2011), identified three subtypes of
polio: abortive, nonparalytic, and paralytic. Abortive polio symptoms are described as flu–like
symptoms and nonparalytic polio resembles viral meningitis. Paralytic polio, on the other hand
resulted in muscle pain that could eventually result in

Epidemiology Personal Statement
The first paragraph of your personal statement, one or two sentences, should make clear the purpose
of your writing: to present an interpretive summary of your background, academic interests, and
future goals as justification for your admission to a program of graduate study. An encounter with an
unforgettable young girl when I was in the 5th grade of medical school has driven me since then.
My aspiration is to contribute to a world where more children could live healthy lives. As I have
trained to be a pediatric resident, I have been interested in infectious diseases and epidemiology, and
thorough an experience of infectious disease outbreak investigation, I am eager to become a field
epidemiology specialist and contribute to make a sustained surveillance system in Japan and
epidemiology education system to more health care workers. Learning epidemiology at Rollins
school of Public Health is essential for me to attain this goal. In short, this paragraph should assure
the graduate admissions committee that you have matured during your ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Until the 5th grade of medical school, when my clinical clerkship began, I had just passed many
tests without a passion. My first rotation at the university hospital was pediatrics. A little girl, I
called her K, changed me completely. She was diagnosed as having an abdominal malignant tumor
and her tumor was not responding well to chemotherapy with radiation. Just a medical student, I
could not do anything to treat her disease, but see, play, and talk with her and her mother every day.
They welcomed me and I was glad to feel being a part of her medical team. She was transferred to
another hospital for advanced treatment in the same week that my clerkship in pediatrics ended. She
and her mother gave me a postcard decorated with stickers. I could not find the words to express my
feelings but I was determined to become a pediatrician and work for children after that

Polio Research Paper
Polio is an infectious disease caused by a special types of viruses. The United States Of America is
still at risk of introducing polio. A polio like illness has recently been discovered in California in
children that produces paralysis like in some polio patients. The last case of polio in The United
States Of America was in 1979. Polio is still a very high problem in Africa and Asia. Polio has also
been traced back almost 6,000 years ago.
Polio is caused by small viruses, RNA viruses to be exact. The viruses are members enterovirus
group of the Picornavirus family. The polio virus is known to attack the nervous system. There are 3
different types of polio viruses. Type one is responsible for about 85% of all paralytic infections. ...
One of the main symptoms is muscle weakness and/or tiredness. Another symptom would be
vomiting. Another symptom is fatigue Also another symptom can possibly be joint pain. The rest of
the symptoms are headaches, nausea, fever, and sore throat.
If you already have polio there is no cure for it. If you take polio prevention vaccines. There are
three different types of vaccines. If you take theses vaccines the viruses could mutate. If the virus
mutates to where the vaccine doesn't work polio can possibly kill you even faster. You mainly want
to make sure that your kids and parents are vaccinated because they are most likely to get polio and
not survive.
Here are a couple more facts about polio that you might not know. Up to 90% of polio cases don't
even have symptoms. One in two–hundred people get paralysis from this disease. Five to ten percent
of paralyzed patients die. The viruses is found in saliva and feces of all of the patients that have
polio. Children five and under makeup for 50% of the polio cases but any age of people can get
polio. Polio cases have decreased more than 99% since 1988. Polio went from having three–hundred
and fifty thousand to only four hundred and sixteen. The first polio vaccine was made by Jonas Salk
in 1952 to try to prevent polio since there is no

Influenza A Virus
Every fall season, more than 1 billion Americans contract colds which lead to the overcrowding
emergency rooms, doctor offices and urgent care visits. Most of them present similar symptoms of
upper respiratory tract (URT) infections which affects the air passage in the nose, ears and throat.
Among them, 5 to 20 percents of these symptoms are contracted by influenza, commonly called "the
flu" (11). According to the Center of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), flu diseases are
episodic and can be acute which has claimed 3000 to 49000 lives from 1976 to 2006 although there
have been no findings on a mortality report due to the common cold (11). Although the common
cold and flu share a lot of common characteristics, but their complications ... Show more content on
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However, flu is caused by a different set of viruses than common cold viruses. The three main types
of viruses often found during the flu season are Influenza A, B and C. Influenza A viruses are the
most common; they are the super bug viruses that infects illnesses in both human and animals. It
contains larger members than type B and C viruses. Type A influenza is divided into subtypes such
as H1N 1 (Swine flu–pig flu), avian influenza (H5N 1 – bird flu) and H3 N2 (most common flu
infection). In short, the H (hemagglutinin) and N (neuraminidase) are the two protein substances
found on the surface of the viruses (9). Therefore, flu exhibit a distinct set of symptoms that
healthcare professionals are able to differentiate from common cold illness. Moreover, like common
cold they are assigned an acronym F.A.C.T.S. to pin point flu illnesses in the diagnosis protocol. F
stands for fever; it usually runs higher than100 degree Fahrenheit (38 degree Celsius). In children, if
the temperature rises over 103 degree Fahrenheit for more than two days, healthcare officials
recommend a visit to Emergency Room in order to prevent the meningitis or brain damage. A is for
aches; the flu illness is always present with muscle aches all over body. In most cases, it is severe
enough to limit an individual from normal activity and bed confinement. C is for chills; shriveling
colds that make it unable to warm up. T is for tiredness; it usually ranges from moderate to severe
dependence. S is for symptom onset; flu onset is very sudden. It comes down rather quickly, within
3 to 6 hours, in comparison to common colds which gradually develops over period of day(s) (3, 5,
6, 7, 8). The key components distinguish flu from common cold are the sudden onset symptoms,
shriveling cold and allover muscle

Viral Analysis : Viral Meningitis
Viral Meningitis
Dyanna Flores
Health Science Technology
3/4/2016
Viral Meningitis
Aseptic meningitis, otherwise known as Viral meningitis, is a viral infection that causes the lining of
the brain and spinal cord to be inflamed. There are numerous viruses that can generate this
infectious disease causing it to be life threatening in some cases. This is a common disease, but
there's less than 200,000 cases known in the US every year. This is an airborne disease, which
means it can be contracted by coughing, sneezing, etc. Most people who get this recover between 7–
10 days without any antibiotics but different types of meningitis do have to be treated with
medications.( CDC, 2014) It's important to be ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Anyone can become infected by this by coming into close contact with somebody who already has
viral meningitis. Infection can also occur if the virus is on objects and surfaces then touching your
face. Sometimes these viruses do not produce any symptoms, but if they do it's something similar to
getting the cold or having the flu. Non–polio enterovirus causes 10–15 million infections every year
in the US.(CDC, 2014)
Clinical Manifestation
Some of the earliest signs and symptoms that come with Viral meningitis are having a headache,
having neck stiffness, being sensitive to bright lights, nausea and vomiting, fever, and may even
have trouble sleeping or waking up; those aren't the only ones, some people may even develop a
rash somewhere on their body. These symptoms are very similar to bacterial meningitis except that
the outcome is more severe if not treated. A person who has contracted bacterial meningitis can
people to have serious issues such as brain damage, loss of hearing and even learning disabilities.
People who contract viral meningitis take about a week to 10 days to recover and it usually happens
on it's own.(Cleveland Clinic, 2016) A test to see if you 're suffering from meningitis is called The
tumbler test. What you have to do is place a clear glass tumbler onto your skin firmly against the
rash. If you can see the marks through the glass then it 's suggested to seek medical

Why Nail Biting Is Bad But Just Can Not Stop?
Have you ever had a habit that you know is bad but just cannot stop? Did this habit start because of
anxiety, or did you learn it from your parents? Do you do it when you are bored? Chronic nail
biting, also called onychophagia, affects "28% to 33% of children aged 7–10 years old, 44% of
adolescents, 19% to 29% of young adults, and 5% of older adults" (Ginesi). Due to anxiety or
boredom, people of every age are affected by nail biting which leads to many effects such as
damage to nails and teeth, embarrassment, and the spread of illnesses.
One of the main causes of nail biting is anxiety which is why nail biting is often referred to as a
"nervous habit" (Woods et al. 200). It has been found that those who bite their nails most often are
adolescents, more specifically boys who are going through puberty (Ginesi). These young males are
going through periods of stress and hormone changes, and as a way to deal with the changes in their
lives, they turn to nail biting. Something about the habit of biting ones finger nails is calming and
helps people deal with the stress they face. While the habit is most common in boys, people of both
genders are affected by the habit. In the case study conducted by Woods et al., it was found that
children engaged in nail biting while they were doing math, taking tests, or thinking hard (202).
These activities are known for being stressful and causing anxiety, and nail biting helps those
children relieve the stress. Once nail biting has been

Febrile Seizure Essay
Although seizures have been characterized for a long time, they are continually redefined by the
International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) to better characterize those arising from due to
standalone structural neurologic disorders (i.e., epilepsy), versus those that are secondary to an
existing illness (e.g., febrile types seen in cases of infection), among others1. In this literature
review, the focus is on febrile seizures (FS) in pediatric groups and the pathogens most often
associated with them. However before delving into a discussion about the pathogens associated with
FS it would be appropriate, at this moment, to delineate the criteria that characterize a febrile
seizure. Currently, complex FS are described as one that arises in one side of the brain (that is, it's
focal), occurs more than once during a febrile illness within a 24–hour period, or lasts more than
10–15 minutes.2 My febrile patient suffered a similar episode also presented with had initially ...
A Hong Kong study published in 2001 reviewed 1998 medical charts of children aged 6 months to 5
years who were admitted for influenza A virus and compared it to adenovirus and parainfluenza
virus cases that occurred over 1996 – 1998. Researchers found that a higher incidence of influenza A
virus infections (54/272 or 19.5%) were associated with febrile seizures versus 12.2% (18/148) sick
with parainfluenza, or 9% (18/199) sick with adenovirus.5 While viruses more commonly cause
febrile seizures in younger populations, there have been reports of virulent bacteria, particularly
Shigella, being associated with them. However, the evidence is rather slim. In one prominent study
conducted in 1958 that reviewed medical charts from 1926 through 1953 of a couple of New York
Hospitals for cases of acute Shigella enteritis. Of the 246 pts, 12 percent developed febrile
convulsions, of which 30 percent were age 6 and

Poliomyelitis
POLIO
Poliomyelitis popularly known as polio was first described by Michael Underwood in 1789. It is a
highly infectious viral disease which mostly affects children. The virus is transmitted from person to
person via fecal–oral route and less frequent by common vehicle route like contaminated water or
food. Polio is a member of the enteroviruses which are transient inhabitants of the gastrointestinal
tracts and stable at acid pH. The incubation period for poliomyelitis is 6 to 20 days with a range of 3
to 35 days. The preclinical phase of poliomyelitis varies from asymptomatic to presentation of mild
systemic symptoms ranging from pharyngitis or gastroenteritis thus it can mistake at the initial stage
as a minor infection. About 95% ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore, the suspicion of polio as a differential diagnosis is mostly days after the onset of
symptoms. Isolation of the polio virus is principal to the diagnosis of the disease. The likelihood of
polio virus isolation is highest from stool specimen, intermediate from pharyngeal swabs and low
for blood and spinal fluids. Polio virus shedding can be intermediate and does increase the
probability of polio virus isolation. At least two stool specimens and two throat swab should be
obtained 24 hours apart from patients as early as it considered as a differential diagnosis. This is
ideally within the first 14 days after the onset of the onset of the disease. It is important to determine
whether the polio virus isolated is wild or vaccine related. Serologic test may be helpful in assisting
the diagnosis of paralytic poliomyelitis and acute serum specimen should be obtained as early in the
course of disease as possible, and a convalescent specimen should be obtained at least three weeks
later. Cerebral spinal fluid usually contains increased number of leucocytes and mildly elevated
protein. These findings are non–specific and may result in a variety of infections and non–infectious
conditions. Therefore, the best diagnostic test is a isolation of the polio virus from stool specimen
(Wallace and Oberste,

The Hand, Foot And Mouth Disease
DISEASE NAME
HAND FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE BIOGRAPHY
The hand, foot and mouth disease (HMFD) is a viral infection that primarily affects young children
and infants and is characterized by eruptions of vesicles on the skin of the mouth, hands and feet of
infected humans.
The most prevalent pathogen is the Coxsakievirus A16, which is of the family Picornaviradie and
the genus Enterovirus. Infections from Coxsakievirus A4 – A7, A9, A10, B1 – B3, as well as B5
have been found to occur occasionally. In addition, the virus Enterovirus 71 is also known to cause
HMFD. However, it must be noted that it is not a general rule for Coxsakievirus A16 to be the most
prevalent cause of HFMD cases. For instance, in a study of the HFMD disease that broke out in
China in 2003, researchers Yan XF et al observed that over 80% of all infections were caused by
enterovirus 71 while Coxsakievirus A16 only accounted for less than 7%. The two viruses have also
been known to co–infect a host.
Coxsakieviruses are viruses that are without the lipid bilayer that make up the capsid of viruses. The
genetic materials of Coxsakieviruses are single–stranded RNAs. There are two major types of
Coxsakieviruses referred to as group A and group B. About 23 serotypes of group A coxsakieviruses
have been discovered and about 6 serotypes for group B. The two groups of viuses are very different
in terms of where they attack. Group A coxsakieviruses attack the skin and mucous membrane while
Group B coxsakieviruses

What Is Poliomyelitis?
WHAT IS POLIO?
Poliomyelitis or polio, is highly contagious viral infection that can lead to abnormal conditions such
as paralysis, breathing problems, or even lead to death. The poliomyelitis is from the word "grey",
myelos referencing to the "matter" of the spinal cord, –itis meaning inflammation. So it means the
inflammation of the grey matter of the spinal cord.
Poliomyelitis can be categorize as either asymptomatic or symptomatic. About 95% of all cases of
poliomyelitis display no symptoms (asymptomatic poliomyelitis) but between 4% to 8% of cases of
poliomyelitis display symptoms (symptomatic poliomyelitis). Nonparalytic or abortive poliomyelitis
and a severe form of polio called paralytic can occur 0.1% to 2% of cases symptomatic polio. Polio
occurs most frequently in the summer and children under years of age are most vulnerable.
Nonparalytic polio (abortive polio) can lead to flu–like symptoms that last for a few days , weeks, or
months, such as sore throat, fever, fatigue, meningitis, muscles spasms, muscle tenderness,
headache, arm and leg stiffness, neck and back pain, and vomiting.
Paralytic polio be classified as:
1. Spinal polio– which attacks motor neurons in the spinal cord and causes paralysis in arms and
legs and causes breathing problems too.
2. Bulbar polio– which attacks

Essay On Disease Design
Running Head: RESEARCH DESIGN 1 Research Design Jackie M. Nevells Aspen University
JOURNAL ARTICLE IDENTIFICATION The Center for Disease Control published a journal
article in Emerging Infectious Disease volume 22, number 11 in November 2016. The article
summarizes a case study that was completed in 2015. Researchers performed a study on pediatric
ambulatory patients in an attempt to estimate the prevalence of enterovirus serotypes and the clinical
presentations associated with hand, foot and mouth disease. The study was a cohort prospective
study, which lasted one year, from April 2014 to March 2015, and enrolled 659 children. Tallen
(2016) states 'in prospective studies, individuals are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The often unusual presentation of HFMD can be challenging for clinicians, and this study might
therefore help improve the differential diagnosis of HFMD by primary care physicians and the
detection of future HFMD outbreaks.....leading to better detection of outbreaks associated with EV–
A71 or any other serotype associated with severe or distinct clinical features" (Mirand, et al). This
was a primary study. The collection of specimens was used primarily for the outcome of this
particular study. There were no surveys collected or provided by the researchers in this study. The
study had minimal flaws as discussed by the researchers. It was believed the observations may have
been incomplete due to the nature of hand, foot and mouth disease being self limiting causing the
participants to not showing up for all office visits. In addition, the inclusion ratio of all patients with
hand, foot and mouth disease would be too cumbersome and not practical in the setting of a primary
practice of outpatient pediatrics. The study contributed to the epidemiology of hand, foot and mouth
disease in France and its association with the enterovirus. Also, primary care physicians may now
detect the disease with more accuracy and frequency as a result of the study. Peaks of highest
activity and serotype identification may lead to increased awareness and

The Coxsackie Virus
Opening: Hand, foot, and mouth are parts of human body have the highest change to get contagious
infection. There are many viruses but Enterovirus groups, (most common is the coxsackie virus) is
the main factor. These viruses can spread through direct contact from person to person especially
with those have bad habits such as: unusually washed hands or surfaces contaminated with feces. An
infected person's saliva, stool, or respiratory secretions can transmit the infection. Body: CAUSES –
A kind of virus called an enterovirus is the reason causes hand–foot–and–mouth disease. –
Coughing and sneezing can spread the viruses easily. Infected stool may be infectious, such as
changing a diaper or children use hands to touch their stool before touching another objects and put
in their mouths.. – Viruses can be ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One or two days after, sores or blisters start to appear in or on the mouth and on the hands, feet and
buttocks. In some cases, a skin rash's appearance happens before the blisters do. The blisters may
break open and crust over. – The sores and blisters usually disappear after a week or more. – In
some cases there are very mild symptoms or no symptoms at all . Parents and children can get
disease without realizing it before. PREVENTIONS – Good hygiene is practiced day by day is the
best defense against hand, foot, and mouth disease. Regular clean hand, foot and mouth can greatly
reduce risk of infecting this virus. – Make sure you teach your children correctly how to wash their
hands using hot water and soap. After that, they can do it individually. Hands need always washing
after using the restroom, before eating, and after going out in public. Children should also be
educated not to let their hands or other objects in or close to their

Type 1 Diabetes Research Paper
Public Health Problem Diabetes is a disease that gives you high blood pressure due to the restriction
of the body producing a sufficient amount of insulin. Today, diabetes exists in society due to not
being careful about what you eat, not exercising, but also it is hereditary. There are a number of
types of diabetes such as Gestational diabetes, Diabetes LADA, Diabetes MODY, Double Diabetes,
Type 3 diabetes, steroid–induced diabetes, Brittle diabetes, Secondary diabetes, and Diabetes
Insipidus, but the most common are type 1, and type 2. Due to the diabetes research Institute
foundation, type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease that affects the pancreas, which is the most
severe type. Although you can get it any age, it is common to ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
My grandma has had diabetes since 1994 and everyday I know what she goes through. When I was
young she would always remind me not to eat too much fatty foods or stay exercising or else I
would turn up like her. My grandpa on the other hand did not have controlled diabetes, which
therefore led him to a kidney failure and he had to get a kidney transplant. He is constantly injecting
himself with insulin and it hurts me knowing her has to go through this everyday. Knowing that
diabetes is hereditary I know that I have a high risk of getting diabetes in the future and it has made
me very health conscious of my day to day

Effects of the Poliovirus: Poliomyelitis
 Poliovirus is an enterovirus which infects the guts then spreads through blood to infect the central
nervous system causing paralysis though infection is over 90% asymptomatic.
 The challenges eradicating polio range from socio–cultural factors to political and economical
factors. There are mainly three endemic areas remaining namely: Nigeria, Pakistan and Afghanistan.
 The solution to the challenges would vary from countries and communities with specific issues.
But the direct involvement of the population is crucial making the battle more active than passive
with less publicity.
INTRODUCTION:
Polio had caused 350000 cases of infection in 1988 in over 125 countries and less than 2000 cases in
just about four countries in 2009 and then 406 cases in 2013. This 99% drop of polio threat is the
result of endless efforts of the World Health Organization, Unicef, Centers of Disease Control and
Prevention, Bill and Melinda foundation, Rotary foundation as well as governments supporting the
Global Polio Eradication Initiatives with immunization. Nevertheless, the remaining 1% is posing
great problem eradicating presenting various political, social, economical and technical obstacles. A
more direct consideration of especial challenges for specific countries and communities could put an
end to polio threat around the world.
POLIO DISEASE AND ERADICATION
Polio known as poliomyelitis or infantile paralysis is an acute viral infection caused by the
enterovirus called poliovirus. It

What Is Poliomyelitis?
Poliomyelitis Polio
Poliomyelitis is an infectious viral disease that affects the central nervous system and can cause
temporary or permanent paralysis. The name poliomyelitis comes from the Greek poliós (πολιός)
which means 'grey', myelós (µυελός) which refers to the spinal cord. The suffix of '–itis' which
indicated inflammation.
Polio is caused by the pathogen poliovirus. Poliovirus is part of the group IV ((+)ssRNA).Order:
Picornavirales, Family: Picornaviridae, Genus: Enterovirus, Species: Enterovirus C. It is a virus,
making polio a viral disease.
Polio is transmitted by direct contact with other people, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
99% of worldwide cases have been eliminated with only two countries still in the grips of polio, but
even these two countries only have a few hundred cases each year and that number is decreasing.
In 1988, at the Forty First World Health Assembly, the GPEI (Global Polio Eradication Initiative)
was launched. It was led by national governments, WHO (Wold Health Organisation), Rotary
International, UNICEF and many others. Since the launching of the GPEI, there has been a decrease
in the number of polio cases by 99%. Only two countries still are facing polio. They are Pakistan
and Afghanistan and every year the number of cases in both decreases.
Polio is being prevented through the usage of immunisations. In the 1950s American researcher,
Jonas Salk discovered that the poliovirus could be inactivated by using the chemical formaldehyde.
He used this information to create a vaccine. This vaccine was tested in 1954 using hundreds of
thousands of children. One batch of this vaccine hadn't been made properly and several became sick
or died. When the manufacture had improved, the vaccine was able to reduce the amount of polio
cases. Polish–American doctor, Albert Sabin tested an alternate vaccine which used weakened
viruses. This vaccine could be taken by mouth rather than being taken by injection. This version of
the vaccine was cheaper

Nuctosplenomegaly Case Summary
The patient was "full–term, normal spontaneous vaginal delivery". Birth weight of 5pounds 5
ounces delivered to an HIV–positive mother. The patient was hospitalized for 8 weeks after birth
because of drug withdrawal and seizures. She was discharged from the hospital to the care of her
maternal grandparents. The patient tested HIV–positive at birth and was referred to the Pediatric
AIDS Center for care. She was found to be anemic with a hemoglobin of 9.5 and neutropenic with
an ANC of 746. Physical examination was normal except for a few palpable posterior cervical
lymph nodes. Immunoglobulins revealed an IgG of 2400, IgA of 80, IgM of 290. Her CD4 count
was 2143 cells. She was retested and found to be HIV–positive by ELISA, Western blot, and
antigen. At age one year she developed hepatosplenomegaly. The patient has been on AZT and is
doing well except for an occasional bout with otitis and sinusitis. PROBLEMS 1. HIV: She
continuous ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There is no oral thrush. d. She has persistently low measles antibody titers. 3. RESPIRATORY:
Chest x–ray shows evidence of early LIP. 4. CARDIOVASCULAR: ECG and ECHO have been
normal. 5. HEPATIC: Hepatosplenomegaly fluctuates most recently liver and spleen were both 2 cm
below the costal margin. LFTs were elevated. Abdominal ultrasound and CT were normal with no
evidence of pathology of the liver, spleen, pancreas, or kidneys. 6. GI: Her albumin is normal and
weight has been between the 10th and 25th percentile and height between the 5th and 10th
percentile. She has been referred to the nutritionist and will be followed closely. 7. RENAL: No
renal problems noted. 8. HEMATOLOGICAL: Hemoglobin and hematocrit are generally low
normal. ANC fluctuates with the dose of AZT. Platelets are normal. 9. CNS: CT of the head is
normal. She functions on the average to low average range with some decline in perceptual
performance. Gross motor ability and receptive vocabulary will be followed closely. 10.
IMMUNIZATIONS: She is up to

Symptoms And Treatment Of Acute Pharyngitis
Introduction
According to American Family Physician (2009), acute pharyngitis is a common upper respiratory
tract infection seen in the pediatric population, with most children averaging five sore throats within
a year in the United States. "Pharyngitis is the inflammation of the mucosa lining the structure of the
throat including the tonsils, pharynx, uvula, soft palate, and nasopharynx" (Burns, Dunn, Brady,
Starr, & Blosser, p. 715, 2013). Acute pharyngitis can be caused by both virus and bacteria
microorganisms. About 40 to 60% of acute pharyngitis is of a viral origin (Burns et al., 2013).
Adenovirus is the most common virus associated with acute pharyngitis. Although, there are other
associated viruses, which includes Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), cytomegalovirus, influenza virus,
parainfluenza, herpes simplex virus, enterovirus, and human immunodeficiency virus (Burns et al.,
2013). There are some common bacterial organisms that are associated with pharyngitis which
includes Streptococcus pyogens (group A streptococcus), Corynbacterium diphtheria,
Arcanobacterium haemolyticum, Neisseria gonorrhoeare, group C and group G streptocococci, and
Mycoplasma pneumonia (Burns et al., 2013). Streptococcus pyogens accounts for 15 to 30 percent
of pharyngitis in children, with group A beta–hemolytic streptococcus being the most common cause
in children (Burns et. al., 2013). The bacteria is mostly transmitted through the respiratory route
with a 2–5day incubation period, which has

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Cdna
troubleshooting. As the control RNA also did not yield any results through the several runs
attempted, it is still unknown why long template cDNA was not reliably produced for the next step
of the sequencing process. It is possible further optimisation is required for cDNA to be synthesised,
but funding and time constraints limited it for this study.
Further studies in this area may use the same reagents and protocols used with further optimisation
to yield results. Other possibilities are attempting different primers to try and create cDNA that
covers the whole genome.
4.7 Conclusions
The aims of the study were to develop molecular assays to detect and type EV from patient samples
and describe the virus distribution and epidemiology in South Africa. A single EV real–time ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The advantage of the simplex, is that it is more robust and more sensitive that multiplex PCRs due
to the nature of few primers and probes in the assay. The disadvantage is that the sequencing assay
to be based on these results needs to then amplify all EV, instead of more specifically a species per
assay. Nix et al developed an assay for this purpose in 2006 (Nix et al., 2006). This assay was able
to detect all EV serotypes spread across all 4 HEV species. In this study, more recently classified EV
were detected by this assay: EV99, EV102, and EV114. These are little described viruses with no
clear disease association. The epidemiology of EV in South Africa showed a general concordance
with other studies (Benschop et al., 2010, Apostol et al., 2012, Dhole et al., 2009). HEV–B and
HEV–C contained the most number of typed viruses in the country, though as mentioned, many
previous studies were biased due to the use of culture before virus typing, instead of typing directly
from patient samples. Echovirus 30 is seen to be the predominant serotype in Europe, but elsewhere
in the world, the viral distribution is more even, with serotypes co–circulating (Oberste

Pathology and Epidemiology of Anterior Poliomyelitis Essay
Anterior Poliomyelitis is a highly infectious disease that attacks the anterior horn of the spinal cord.
Poliomyelitis translates to grey spinal matter inflammation. Polio is caused by a picorna virus that
enters the body through mucus membranes and then multiplies in the throat and being an acidophile,
can survive well in the stomach and small intestine. When viremia occurs and persists, the virus will
penetrate the capillary wall. Once this happens, it enters the central nervous system and begins
attacking motor neurons. Polio is tissue specific and will only multiply and attack neurons. "this
strict neuronotropism and definite tissue specificity of poliomyelitis virus is reflected not only in its
limited adult host range but aso in its ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is when viremia will occur and the virus will begin to spread. If it does not reach the central
nervous system then the patient will only have abortive poliomyelitis. They will have some flu like
symptoms and experience a full recovery. As the virus goes further, one may become stricken with
aseptic meningitis. This polio is considered non–paralytic, has the same symptoms as abortive
poliomyelitis, and irritates the meninges. This causes back and neck pain and stiffness but has a full
recovery. The worst case scenario is paralytic poliomyelitis. This occurs when the virus begins
replicating in the brain stem and anterior horn causing cell destruction and neurological damage in
the form of paralysis. This is very rare and occurs in less than 2% of infections. While paralysis of
the legs is most common, it can affect the arms, or worse, spread to the trunk. When the legs are
affected, the patient is fitted with braces to help with recovery (Figure 1) If it continues and reaches
bulbar polio, the brain stem becomes paralyzed and generally the patient will die from asphyxiation.
(Flynn) Almost 15 years later the iron lung was invented to help people at this stage survive, but
currently, there was nothing they could do.
One of the worst polio epidemics to hit the United States was in 1916 in the heart of New York City.
It infected 9,000 just in the city and kept spreading throughout the states to infect over 27,000. It left

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