At the end of this session,
Student are able to
1. Explain etiology and pathophysiology of adrenal cortex disorder
2. Identify the clinical manifestation related
3. Explain the diagnostic investigation related
4. Discuss the treatment, intervention and possible complication
5 Apply nursing art / caring value towards patient ~ nursing care
1. What comprises the Endocrine system
2. Mechanisms of Hormonal alterations
3. Pituitary Gland- Anterior pituitary gland, posterior pituitary gland and their disorders
4. Thyroid gland and its disorders
5. Diabetes
6. Parathyroid Gland disorders
7. Adrenal Gland and its disorders
8. Thank you
1. What comprises the Endocrine system
2. Mechanisms of Hormonal alterations
3. Pituitary Gland- Anterior pituitary gland, posterior pituitary gland and their disorders
4. Thyroid gland and its disorders
5. Diabetes
6. Parathyroid Gland disorders
7. Adrenal Gland and its disorders
8. Thank you
Hypothyroidism is a disorder that occurs when the thyroid gland does not make enough thyroid hormone to meet the body’s needs.
Hyperthyroidism is a disorder that occurs when the thyroid gland makes more thyroid hormone than the body needs.
Define hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism
Here you can see all causes by which a hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism occur in child and also mention and explained the all signs and symptoms and also explained their treatments and preventions
Hypothyroidism is a disorder that occurs when the thyroid gland does not make enough thyroid hormone to meet the body’s needs.
Hyperthyroidism is a disorder that occurs when the thyroid gland makes more thyroid hormone than the body needs.
Define hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism
Here you can see all causes by which a hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism occur in child and also mention and explained the all signs and symptoms and also explained their treatments and preventions
The endocrine system is a complex network of gland and hormone.
the endocrine glands are ductless gland as they secrete their hormone direct into the blood stream. a hormone is a chemical messengers that regulate body physiology at their own level, hypothalamus is called master of master gland that control releasing and inhibiting process of any other hormone through pituitary, so pituitary is known as master gland of endocrine system.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
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Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
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Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
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The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...
Endocrine disorder
1. NURSING MANAGEMENT
OF PATIENT WITH
ENDOCRINE DISORDER
Prepared by : Intan Baiduri Badri
18 September 2018
Health Campus, Kubang Kerian
2. INTRODUCTION
• Effects almost every cell, organ, and function of
the body
• The endocrine system is closely linked with the
nervous system and the immune system
• The nervous system and the interconnected
network of glands known as the endocrine
system control body systems.
• Endocrine disorders are the consequences of
hypo function and hyper function of each
endocrine gland.
3. ENDOCRINE
• Made up of gland in many tissues and organs in
difference body areas
• Main features of all endocrine gland is the
secretion of hormones
• Responses to stress injury
• Growth and development
• Energy metabolism
• Reproduction
• electrolyte, acid base balance
5. HORMONES
• Secreted by endocrines glands
• Endocrine glands are composed of secretory
cells arranged in minutes cluster known as
acini
• Glands are ductless with rich with blood
supply, so hormones they produce enter the
bloodstream rapidly
6. HORMONES
• Hormone concentration in bloodstream is
maintained at a relatively constant level
• When the hormone concentration increase,
further production of that hormones is
inhibited
• Are natural chemical substances that initiate
or regulate activity and exert their effect on
specific tissues known as Target Tissues
7. TARGET TISSUES
• Are usually located some distance from the
endocrine gland with no direct physical
connection between the endocrine gland and
its target tissue
• The endocrine gland are called “ductless”
gland and must be used the blood to transport
secreted hormones to the target tissue.
8. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
• The level of hormone in the blood is regulated
by the homeostasis called Negative Feedback.
• Ex : control of insulin secretion
• Increase level of blood glucose, the hormone
insulin is secreted thus increase glucose
uptake by the cells- > causing a decrease in
blood glucose
9. CLASIFFICATION OF HORMONES
• Steroid hormones : hydrocortisone
• Peptide or protein hormones : insulin
• Amine Hormone : epinephrine
• Fatty acid derivatives : retinoids
10. HYPOTHALAMUS
• Located between the cerebrum and brainstem
• Houses the pituitary gland and hypothalamus
• Regulates:
– Temperature
– Fluid volume
– Growth
– Pain and pleasure response
– Hunger and thirst
12. PITUITARY GLAND
• Located beneath the hypothalamus
• Also known as the “master gland”
• Divided into:
– Anterior Pituitary Gland
– Posterior Pituitary Gland
13. ANTERRIOR PITUITARY
1. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
– Stimulates thyroid growth and secretion of the thyroid
hormone
2. Andrenocorthropic hormone (ACTH)
– Stimulates adrenal cortex growth and secretion of
glucocorticoids
3. Growth hormone (GH) – stimulate growth
4. Prolactin / Lactogen
– Stimulate breast development during pregnancy and
milk secretion after delivery
14. ANTERRIOR PITUITARY
5. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
– Stimulates ovarian follicles to mature and produce
oestrogens; in the male stimulates sperm production
6. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
– Acts with FSH to stimulate estrogen production;
causes ovulation; stimulates progesterone production
by corpus luteum; in male stimulate testes to produce
testosterone
7. Melanocytes stimulating hormone
– Synthesis and spread of melanin in the skin
15. POSTERIOR PITUITARY
• ADH antidiuretic hormone
– Stimulate water retention by kidneys to decrease
urine secretion
• Oxytocin
– Stimulate uterine contraction, causes breast to
release milk into ducts
17. ADRENAL GLANDS
• Pyramid-shaped organs that located on top of
the kidneys
• Each has two parts:
– Outer Cortex
– Inner Medulla
17
18. ADRENAL CORTEX
• Mineralocorticoid
– Regulates electrolyte and fluid homeostasis
– Aldosterone.- affects sodium absorption, loss of
potassium by kidney
• Glucocorticoids—cortisol & hydrocortisone
– Affects metabolism, regulates blood sugar levels,
– Affects growth, anti-inflammatory action,
– Decreases effects of stress
• Adrenal androgens (sex hormone)
– Stimulates sexual drive in females; in male negligible
effect
18
19. ADRENAL MEDULLA
• Secretion of two hormones
– Epinephrine : Prolongs and intensifies sympathetic
nervous response to stress
– Norepinephrine : Prolongs and intensifies
sympathetic nervous response to stress
• Serve as neurotransmitters for sympathetic
system
• Involved with the stress response
19
20. THYROID
• Follicular cells—excretion of triiodothyronine (T3)
and thyroxine (T4) - Increase Basal Metabolic
Rate (BMR), increase bone and protien turnover,
increase response to catecholamines, need for
infant for growth & develop
• Thyroid C cells—calcitonin. Lowers blood calcium
and phosphate levels
20
21. THYROID GLAND
• Butterfly shaped
• Located on either side of the trachea
• Has two lobes connected with an isthmus
• Functions in the presence of iodine
• Stimulates the secretion of three hormones
• Involved with metabolic rate management
and serum calcium levels
21
25. PARATHYROID GLANDS
• Embedded within the posterior lobes of the
thyroid gland
• Secretion of one hormone
• Maintenance of serum calcium levels
• Parathyroid hormone—regulates serum calcium
(blood calcium concentration)
25
26. PANCREAS
• Located behind the stomach between the spleen and
duodenum – it influence carbohydrate metabolism;
indirectly influence fat and protein metabolism;
produces insulin and glucagon
* Glucagon – raises blood glucose
* Insulin – lower blood glucose
• Has two major functions
– Digestive enzymes
– Releases two hormones: insulin and glucagon
26
27. KIDNEY
• 1, 25 dihydroxyvitamin D—stimulates calcium
absorption from the intestine
• Renin—activates the Renin-Angiotensin
System (RAS)
• Erythropoietin—Increases red blood cell
production
27
32. CLINICAL MANIFESTATION
• Widespread effects on the body and wide
variety of signs and symptoms
• Changes in energy level & fatigue
• Tolerance of heat and cold as well as recent
changes in weight
• Changes in sexual function and secondary sex
characteristic
• Changes in mood, memory, and ability to
concentrate and altered sleep patterns
33. PHYSISCAL ASESSMENT
• General appearance
– Vital signs, height, weight
• Integumentary
– Skin color, temperature, texture, moisture
– Bruising, lesions, wound healing
– Hair and nail texture, hair growth
• Physical appearance
– Buffalo bump, thinning of skin, increased size of
the feet and hands
40. LABAROTORY STUDIES
• Test of thyroid
– To differentiate primary and secondary hypothyroidism
• Serum thyroid stimulating hormone
– To measure the basal serum thyroid stimulating hormone
• Serum thyroxine and triiodothyronine
– To measure concentration of thyroxine T$9T3) in the blood
• Test of parathyroid function
– To measure the concentration of calcium, phosphorus,
alkaline, phosphatase, parathyroid hormone and
osteocalcin in the blood.
41. LABAROTORY STUDIES
• Test of adrenal function
– To measure concentration of adrenocortical hormones
and adrenal medullary hormones through urine and
blood specimen
• Aldosterone level
– Aids in the diagnosis of hyperaldosteronism
• Urine catecholamines
– To assess function of the adrenal medulla
• Test of thyroid structure & function
– To assess the size, shape, position and fucntion of the
thryroid through ulstrasound, MRI, CT scan, &
radionuclide imaging
42. LABAROTORY STUDIES
• Radioactive iodine uptake
– To measure the amount of radioactive iodine in
the thyroid 24H after administration of a
radioiodine isotope through scintillation scanner
• Achilles tendon reflexes
– To diagnose thyroid disorders by measuring the
amplitude and duration of ankle jerk using an
instrument that will help to elicit the reflex
45. HYPERPITUITARISM
• Over secretion of hormone due to tumour or
hyperplasia > compresses brain tissue .
Neurologic sign & symptom (ICP, Visual
impairment & headache
• Hormone affected : growth hormone & ADH
• Resulting to Gigantism if the secretion occurs
in childhood, Acromegaly in adult
46. ACROMEGALY
• Pathology:-GH hypersecretion during adulthood
• Risk: Pituitary adenoma
• Cardinal Signs: large hands and feet; protrusion
of lower jaw(Prognathism). Coarse facial feature
• Nurse Concern: Psychosocial adjustment
to Altered body image; monitor Diabetes
Insipidus
47. DWARFISM
• due to hyposecretion of growth hormone
• Nursing Intervention:
– Assess patient
– Monitor height and weight
– Assess other neurologic functions
– Focus on the family client’s feeling
• Medical Management :
– Biosynthetic growth hormone -Somatrem
48. GIGANTISM
• Results from excessive secretion of growth
hormone
• Clinical manifestation:
– Height more than 8 feet
– Acromegaly
• Medical Management:
– Radiation therapy
– Parlodel
– Transphenoidal hypophysectomy
49. PANHYPOPITUITARISM
(SIMMOND’SDISEASE)
• complete absence of pituitary secretion resulting
to:
– Dwarfism
– Hypoglycemia
– Extreme weight loss
– Hair loss
– Emaciation
– Impotence
– hypometabolism
– absence of gonadal & adrenal function
– Atrophy of all endocrine gland and organs
50. HYPOPITUITARISM
• Result from destruction of the anterior pituitary
gland, hypothalamic dysfunction, trauma, tumour,
vascular lesion, and complication of radiation
therapy to the head and neck area
• S&S:
– -Extreme weight loss
– Emaciation-
– Hypoglycaemia
– Impotence
– Amenorrhea
– Hypometabolism
51. HYPERPROLACTINEMIA
• Results from oversecretion of prolactin
associated with pituitary tumors
• Management and Nursing Management same
as hyperpituitarism
52. PITUITARY TUMOR
Types:
1.Eosinophilic - result to gigantism if developed
early in life and acromegaly if developed during adult
life
2.Basophilic - results to Cushing's syndrome; clinical
manifestation: amenorrhea & masculinization in
females, truncal obesity, osteoporosis &polycytemia
3.Chromophobic -
produces no hormone but destroys the whole
pituitary glands resulting to hypopituitarism.
S&S: obesity, somnolence, scanty hair, dry, soft skin,
loss of libido, headache, blindness, polyphagia,
polyuria, and lowered BMR
53. GONADAL DISORDER
• Result from hypothalamic-pituitary
dysfunction resulting to hypo secretion
of gonadotropins may lead to infertility and
hypo-androgenism-
• Collaborative Management :
– Removal of the underlying cause of pituitary
dysfunction
54. POSTERIOR PITUITARY DISORDERS
• Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone
(SIADH) - resulting from abnormal increase
of ADH secretion & excessive water retention
leads to include urinary sodium
• Etiology: Bronchogenic carcinoma, head injury,
tumor, infection, and brain surgery
• Cardinal signs: water intoxication, neurologic
signs
• Medical Mgt:
– Diuretics & Demecclocycline (declomycin)
– Eliminate underlying cause
55. DIABETES INSIPIDUS
• A condition characterized by a deficiency in
antidiuretic hormone resulting to excessive fluid
excretion: neurogenic and nephrogenic
• Risk: head trauma, irradiation, removal
of pituitary gland, renal disease
• Manifestation: diluted urine, polydipsia, excessive
urination
• Diagnostic: vasopressin and H20 deprivation test;
serum Na include &Uric Acid
• Cardinal signs: Polyuria, Polydipsia
56. HYPERTHYROIDISM/GRAVES’ DISEASE
• Hyperthyroidism is the second most prevalent
endocrine disorder, after diabetes mellitus.
• Graves' disease: the most common type of
hyperthyroidism, results from an excessive
output of thyroid hormones.
• May appear after an emotional shock, stress, or
an infection
• Other causes: thyroiditis and excessive ingestion
of thyroid hormone
• Affects women 8X more frequently than men
(appears between second and fourth decade)
57. THYROIDITIS
• Inflammation of the thyroid gland.
• Can be acute, subacute, or chronic (Hashimoto's
Disease)
• Each type of thyroiditis is characterized by
inflammation, fibrosis, or lymphocytic infiltration
of the thyroid gland.
• Characterized by autoimmune damage to the
thyroid.
• May cause thyrotoxicosis, hypothyroidism, or
both
58. • Can be being benign or malignant.
• If the enlargement is sufficient to cause a visible
swelling in the neck, referred to as a goiter.
• Some goiters are accompanied by
hyperthyroidism, in which case they are
described as toxic; others are associated with a
euthyroid state and are called nontoxic goiters.
58
THYROID TUMORS
59. THYROID CANCER
• Much less prevalent than other forms of cancer;
however, it accounts for 90% of endocrine
malignancies.
• Diagnosis: thyroid hormone, biopsy
• Management
– The treatment of choice surgical removal. Total or
near-total thyroidectomy is performed if possible.
Modified neck dissection or more extensive radical
neck dissection is performed if there is lymph node
involvement.
– After surgery, radioactive iodine.
– Thyroid hormone supplement to replace the
hormone. 59
61. PANCREAS
• Lies horizontally behind the stomach at the level of the 1st and 2nd
lumbar vertebrae
• The head attached to the duodenum, tail reaching to the spleen
• With exocrine and endocrine function
• Produced two Importance hormones:
1. Insulin: beta cells of islets of Lagerhans - Decrease glucose
levels:
- transcellular membrane transport of glucose;
- inhibits/breakdown of fats and protein;
- requires sodium for transport protein
- requires potassium for production
62. GLUCAGON
• Alpha cells of Islets of Lagerhans
• Stimulates release of glucose by the liver
• Increases glucose levels(gluconeogenesis)