This tackles the factors that affects and contribute to the loss of biodiversity.

1. Melanie A. Calicdan, MSc.Melanie A. Calicdan, MSc.
PhD in Resource ManagementPhD in Resource Management

2. OUTLINEOUTLINE
Introduction
Major Threats: Real Threat of Endangerment and
Extinction
Anthropogenic Pressures
- Natural Events
- Climate Change
Characteristics of Threatened/Endangered Species
- Large Size
- Dietary Specialist
- Low Reproductive Output
- Habitat Specialist
- Small population size
- Limited Geographic Distribution
- Economic or commercial value
Extinction Process
Cause and Consequence of Endemicity and Rarity
Endangered and threatened Species in the Philippines
IUCN Criteria for Endangered and Threatened Species

3. IntroductioIntroductio
nnPhilippines – treasure trove of biodiversity. One of the 17 mega diverse
countries
Host 70-80% world’s biodiversity.
2nd
among 10 botanical hotspot areas in the tropics.
4th
in the world with highest number of threatened species
5th
in the number of plant species and maintains 5% of the world’s flora
4th
in bird endemism
Has more than 52,177 species (plants and animals) with 680 considered as
threatened (IUCN).
Approximately 30-40% is endemic and no elsewhere can be found in the
world.
Described not only “hotspot” but the “hottest of the hotspot” because
of high levels of endemism , large number of threatened and
endangered species and other human activities that threatens
biodiversity.

4. Endangerment andEndangerment and
ExtinctionExtinction
Biodiversity Loss:Biodiversity Loss:
A Real ThreatA Real Threat

5. Anthropogenic PressuresAnthropogenic Pressures
• Habitat Loss/Forest FragmentationHabitat Loss/Forest Fragmentation
– a landscape –scale process involving
both habitat loss and breaking apart of
habitat.
“ When habitats are fragmented, plants
and animals in that habitat must in
essence, re-learn how to survive. Food
sources that were once there maybe
gone, or homes maybe destroyed. The
areas where young were or raised may
be gone.
This may cause many species to die of
quickly, affecting the biodiversity or
variation of life” – Enzor (2010)

6. • Introduction of Alien SpeciesIntroduction of Alien Species – when animals and plants from
foreign place arrive into a new habitat displacing the native
species, can prey on the native species and sometimes
introducing diseases that the native species can not fight.
3 Common Pathways of Invasion3 Common Pathways of Invasion
1.1.Ballast water -(transport of organisms to a new habitat – betweenBallast water -(transport of organisms to a new habitat – between
islands or countries)islands or countries)
2.2.Establishment and propagation of IAS in the new habitat – (either inEstablishment and propagation of IAS in the new habitat – (either in
natural or man-made habitats such as closures, artificial ponds,natural or man-made habitats such as closures, artificial ponds,
reforestation areas and gardens)reforestation areas and gardens)
3.3.Uncontrolled spread from initial population over large area - (eitherUncontrolled spread from initial population over large area - (either
through deliberate release or accidental escape).through deliberate release or accidental escape).
Pomacea canaliculata
Hypseleotris agilis Clarias batrachus Eichhornia crassipes

7. • ““Kaingin” /Forest Fires (slash and burn farming)Kaingin” /Forest Fires (slash and burn farming) – resulted in
extensive fragmentation of upland forests.
Factors that lead to the practice of increasing “kaingin”Factors that lead to the practice of increasing “kaingin”
1.Habitation by communities marginalized by development projects
2.Rapid urbanization displacement due to natural events (landslides
and flooding)
3.Land clearing
4.Increasing human settlements in close forest proximities

8. • Pollution/Habitat Development –Pollution/Habitat Development – one of
the primary ways in which humans have
cause drastic modifications of wildlife.
Other factors that destroy physicalOther factors that destroy physical
habitatshabitats
1.Draining and filling of swamps and
marshes
2.Damming of rivers be levelling of forest for
residential and industrial developments
3.Strip mining
4.Oil spills
5.Water pollution
Development sites and housing projects in
urban and semi-urban areas are major
barriers to the movement of species between
remaining forest patches.

9. • Over-hunting/OverharvestingOver-hunting/Overharvesting – animals are over hunted because
their meat and other parts are very useful.
Problems of Overhunting (CBD 2002Problems of Overhunting (CBD 2002))
1.Animals are hunted for sports
2.For products like furs and oils
3.For their meat

10. Natural EventsNatural Events
• Climate Change -Climate Change - affect the distribution of marine species and to
thought to represent threat to biodiversity. Biogeographically,
distribution of species is largely determined by climate , as in the
distribution of ecosystems and plant vegetation zones (biomes).
Examples :Examples :
1. Shorter periods of sea ice in the Artic
endanger polar bears habitat and
giving less time to hunt.
2. El Nino Southern Oscillation affects
coral reef
3. Impacts on mountain ecosystem –
some plant species in Alps migrate
upwards by one to four meters per
decade and some plants
previously found on the mountain tops
disappeared (CBD, 2007).

11. EXTINCTION
PROCESS
It is estimated that more than 99.9% of all species of plants and animals thatIt is estimated that more than 99.9% of all species of plants and animals that
have ever existed are now extinct .have ever existed are now extinct .
(American Society of Mammalogists)(American Society of Mammalogists)

12. Endangered species –Endangered species – number of species are reduced to such an extent that it
is likely to become extinct in the near future.
Threatened speciesThreatened species – one whose numbers have been reduced to such an
extent that any further decline in numbers will warrant its designation as an
endangered species. are species which are vulnerable to endangerment in the
near future. Threatened categories consist of 3 categories depending
on which degree they are threatened (vulnerable, endangered, critically
endangered) .
Extinct –Extinct – species that no longer exist in the wild or captivity.
ExtinctionExtinction – a natural phenomena or process that has been occurring since
the earliest forms of live evolved. This may refer to the disappearance of a
species from its entire range (global) or loss of species from a portion of its
geographic range (regional or local).
Large deer (Irish elk) with
huge antlers that were 3m
across became globallyglobally
extinctextinct at the end of the last
glacial stage.
Wild horses became
regionally extinctregionally extinct in
N.A. but survived in
Europe and Asia

13. The extinction of species provides
opportunities for other species to take
over the niche (s) or ecological role (s) of
species that become extinct.
The extinction of Dinosaurs provided
numerous opportunities for mammals
which have been minor players on the
evolutionary stage throughout the age of
Reptiles. In the absence of dinosaurs,
mammals were able to prosper and
evolved to fulfil many of the ecological
niches formerly occupied by dinosaurs.

14. Characteristics of
Threatened and
Endangered
Species
Threatened and endangered species possess certain characteristics. The
species that possess these characteristics often are candidates not only for
threatened or endangered status but also for possible extinction.

15. • Large size -Large size - large mammals by virtue of their size alone require
larger areas in which to obtain necessities of life (food, mates and
cover) than do smaller animals.
“Not only do large mammals need large areas to live but also their
total numbers are much smaller than those of small mammals”

16. • Dietary Specialist –Dietary Specialist – mammals have dietary needs such as
carnivores and frugivores need to forage over much larger areas than
dietary generalists such as herbivores and omnivores.
Footed ferret (predator) Prairie dog (prey)

17. • Low Reproductive Output –Low Reproductive Output – species of mammals have evolved
reproductive strategies than in part reflect their probability of dying.
There is a balance between the probability of dying and a number of
young a female must reproduce to help insure the survival of the
species. When man alters the natural balance between birth and
deaths by increasing mortality, populations decline.
Exemption to the generalExemption to the general
rulerule
(bats)(bats)

18. • Habitat Specialist –Habitat Specialist – species of mammals often become threatened if
the specialized habitats they occupy are small in size and widely
separated in space.
•Under such conditions, these species exist in small, isolated
populations which can be affected by local catastrophic events.
Example:Example:
Loss of 300,000 Indiana
bats when the cave in
which they were
hibernating flooded.

19. • Small population size –Small population size – species with small population have a
greater probability of extinction than those with large populations.
There are species that appear to be naturally rare and may never have
occurred in large numbers. Those are the species that are confined in
distribution to isolated mountain tops.
Restricted in the Eastern and
Southern Africa during Old World.

20. • Limited geographic distribution-Limited geographic distribution- mammals with limited
geographic distribution risk of becoming extinct whenever their
habitats is altered or destroyed.
• Economic or commercial valueEconomic or commercial value – mammals with economic value or
commercial value are often subjected to higher mortality rates.

21. EndangeredEndangered
Category CR EN VU Subtotal NT LR/CD DD LC Total
Plants 55 35 35 125 27 3 9 112 276
Animals 38 81 339 458 302 5 257 928 1,950
Taxonomic GroupsTaxonomic Groups
Mammals Birds Reptiles** Amphibians Fishes** Molluscs**
Other
inverts** Plants** Total**
Total # ofTotal # of
threatenedthreatened
speciesspecies 39 60 35** 48 63** 3* 210** 222** 680**
Source: IUCN Red List Data

22. Endemicity
and
Rarity

23. Endemic species - refers to a taxon which is geographically restricted in
distribution. Endemism refers to the occurrence of particular species
only in a particular habitat and often represents unique step in the
process of evolution. geological state of being unique to a particular
geographic location such as specific island, habitat, nation or any other
defined zones.
Rare Species - mostly simply based on its distribution and abundance
(Lexicon of Conservation Biology)
- merely the current status of an extant organism which is
restricted either in numbers or area to a level that is demonstrably
less than the majority of other organisms of comparable taxonomic
entities (Reveal, 1981).
Rare species - is a group of organisms that are very uncommon, scarce,
or infrequently encountered. They are generally considered
threatened because a small population size is more likely to not
recover from stochastic events (things that could happen)
(www.wikipedia.org).

24. When the continent splits, two halves of the population are separated, and
over many generations, they evolve into separate species. These species'
distribution is the result of vicariance. Many different processes can cause
vicariancevicariance — plate tectonics, the rise of mountain ranges, a shift in the
course of a river, or just climate change that causes an unfavourable habitat
to develop that ends up splitting a species' range into two.
DispersalDispersal,, on the other hand, occurs
when a species spreads or
immigrates from one area to another.
If part of a population moves to a new
area, the two subpopulations may
eventually evolve into separate
species.
CC
AA
UU
SS
EE
EndemicitEndemicit
y

25. Example:Example:
One land masses splits sequentially into
three separate islands.
A mountain range rises on one of these
islands, effectively splitting it. If a group of
organisms was widespread on the original
land mass and was sequentially split along
with the geologic changes, we'd expect the
sequence of splits in the phylogeny to
match the sequence of splits in the
geography.
Additional tectonic action causes one more split. some members of species C
disperse to the new island, and they evolve into a separate species.

26. EE
FF
FF
EE
CC
TT
Endemic species of plants and animals remain poor in
adaptation to direct types of environmental conditions
(physical, climatic and biological factors).
Essentially affected to demographic pressure and introduction
of exotic species because of their restricted habitats (Maiti and
Maiti, 2011).

27. RarityRarity
Two CategoriesTwo Categories
• Natural CausesNatural Causes – defined by species inherent biological or ecological
characteristics.
• Anthropogenic CausesAnthropogenic Causes – defined by harmful human activities that have
resulted in limited distribution and abundance, independently on
their biology. (Partel et.al., 2005).
Factors lead to RarityFactors lead to Rarity
1.1.Habitat loss and degradationHabitat loss and degradation
2.2.IASIAS
3.3. PollutionPollution
4.4.Overharvesting/OverhuntingOverharvesting/Overhunting
5.5.Climate ChangeClimate Change
CC
AA
UU
SS
EE

28. RarityRarity
Rare species may have highly fragmented populations. This can limit the
potential for reproductive exchange of genes between individuals and
increase the possibility of problems resulting from inbreeding
The loss of even a few individuals can represent a substantial
decrease in the total numbers of a rare species.
The common denominators of rarity of species are human land
transformations leading to habitat loss and degradation; biotic
mixing, stemming from the introduction of non indigenous species,
direct human exploitation for control, subsistence, or collecting: and
pollution through the alteration of biochemical cycles or the
introduction of synthetic compounds.

29. 1. Its population has been reduced by 70 percent in the last ten years.
2. It population has been reduced over 50 percent in the last ten years,
where the cause of reduction has not been stopped or is determined
to be irreversible.
3. Its population is suspected to be reduced by 50 percent in the next
ten years or three generations, whichever is longer, up to a
maximum of 100 years.
4. The species is known to exist in five or less geographic locations.
IUCN Criteria forIUCN Criteria for
Endangered SpeciesEndangered Species

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