To perform geological exploration by the geophysical method of electrical resistivity.
The objective of this research is to evaluate the water potential of the study area by
investigating the shallow subsurface aquifer material properties and moisture distribution using
2D ERT techniques. During the shallow tube well design and development in the study area,
some patches of land does have good potential and some does not, which motivated to
understand the aquifer properties, aquifer material, and response. Hence the 2D ERT was
carried out, oriented around the pond in the center and five ERT profiles.
Reference:IS 15736: 2007
The file contains the Resistance of Electricity and how it affects greatly on the technology that we are using nowadays. Together with some calculation and trivia, I hope will enjoy watching and learning the presentation
Analysis of transient enclosure voltages in gis (emtp simulation studies)eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Analysis of transient enclosure voltages in gis (emtp simulation studies)eSAT Journals
Abstract Transient Enclosure voltage is special case of very fast transient overvoltages which occurs due to disconnect switch operation or earth ground. Transient Enclosure Voltage appears on external of earthed enclosure of Gas Insulated Systems. Despite of proper grounding, this phenomenon indicates presence of high potentials on Gas Insulted System enclosures so the grounding system impedance is thoroughly examined and designed. In this study EMTP Software is used for analysis. Simulation was done by varying the different parameters. Variations of waveforms of the Transient Enclosure Voltage with various parameters have been studied. Index Terms: Transient Enclosure Voltage (TEV), Gas Insulated System (GIS), Very Fast Transient Overvoltages (VFTO) Transient Ground Potential Rise (TGPR), Disconnector Switch
The main stake is to detect a defective component or likely to become it during manufacture or inservice inspections, while improving control productivity. In this context, we develop a simulation tool of EC fastened structures testing, integrated to the ANSYS platform, aimed at conceiving testing methods, optimizing and qualifying it. The finite element method has been chosen, it is suitable for this type of problem. Various configurations have been considered for the inspection of a target with a defect in different thicknesses. Due to the impossibility to detect a defect located at a distance much greater than the skin depth δ. Indeed, the eddy currents amplitude are less than 95% of the maximum amplitude beyond a depth greater than 3 δ. We are interested in the detection of defects located at depths higher to three times the skin depth.
Measurement of energy loss of light ions using silicon surface barrier detectoreSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Experimental stress analysis BE notes by mohammed imranMohammed Imran
7th semester, Experimental stress analysis notes as per VTU syllabus by Mohammed Imran, Asst. Prof., Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ghousia College of Engineering-Ramanagaram-562159
Experimental evaluation of strain in concrete elementsnisarg gandhi
Evaluation of strain using
1) mech strain gauge
2) elec strain gauge
also calculation of modulus of elasticity using
1) secant modulus
2) chord modulus
also for the procedure to use electrical strain gauge see the following link
https://drive.google.com/open?id=0Bw9bdaDxJsb8enFZOFhlRWFMYWs&authuser=1
Determination of strength and stress-strain relationships of a cylindrical specimen of reconstituted specimen using Consolidated Drained (CD) Triaxial Test.
1. A series of drained triaxial tests under four different initial states were conducted on Yamuna River sand. The results consist of simple stress-strain relation, change in volume behaviour were plotted.
2. Basic stress-strain relation with volume behaviour was presented in plot. The results for densely prepared sand samples show an expected behaviour. There is a significant difference in peak and residual deviatoric stress (q) as can be depicted form the plot.
3. With increase in confining stress, load carrying capacity of specimen increases.
4. Saturation value ‘B’ must be acquired to be more than 0.95 before starting the isotropic consolidation phase in CD test.
5. CD tests are performed at much slower strain rate as compared to CU tests for the same soil. The strain rate for CD test can be chosen approx. 8-10 times lower than the CU test.
6. It is important to have no pore water pressure generation throughout the shearing phase of CD test or in other words strain rate must be so small that pore water pressure must get dissipated quickly when specimen is subjected to compression loading in CD test.
7. In CD test, volumetric strain versus axial strain relationship shows contractive response for NC soils and dilative response for OC soils. (NC = Normally consolidated, OC = Over consolidated)
References:
1. IS: 2720 (Part 11):1993- Determination of the shear strength parameters of a specimen tested in unconsolidated undrained triaxial compression without the measurement of pore water pressure (first revision). Reaffirmed- Dec 2016.
2. IS: 2720 (Part 12):1981- Determination of Shear Strength parameters of Soil from consolidated undrained triaxial compression test with measurement of pore water pressure (first revision). Reaffirmed- Dec 2016.
3. ASTM D7181-11. Method for Consolidated Drained Triaxial Compression Test for Soils; ASTM: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2011.
Determination of strength and stress-strain relationships of a cylindrical specimen of reconstituted specimen using Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) Triaxial Test.
Learning Outcomes:-
1. With increase in confining stress, the load carrying capacity of the sample increased as evident from the curve showing higher peak deviatoric stress.
2. There is slight variation in the value of actual angle of failure plane (θf = 66.5°) and the value obtained from graph (θf)= 56.01°.
3. In this test, the failure plane is not forced, the stress distribution of failure plane is fairly uniform and specimen can fail on any weak plane or can simply bulge.
4. On plotting Mohr Circle, the failure envelope gave intercept of 155.29 kPa while the s-t plot gave 143.38 kPa.
The file contains the Resistance of Electricity and how it affects greatly on the technology that we are using nowadays. Together with some calculation and trivia, I hope will enjoy watching and learning the presentation
Analysis of transient enclosure voltages in gis (emtp simulation studies)eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Analysis of transient enclosure voltages in gis (emtp simulation studies)eSAT Journals
Abstract Transient Enclosure voltage is special case of very fast transient overvoltages which occurs due to disconnect switch operation or earth ground. Transient Enclosure Voltage appears on external of earthed enclosure of Gas Insulated Systems. Despite of proper grounding, this phenomenon indicates presence of high potentials on Gas Insulted System enclosures so the grounding system impedance is thoroughly examined and designed. In this study EMTP Software is used for analysis. Simulation was done by varying the different parameters. Variations of waveforms of the Transient Enclosure Voltage with various parameters have been studied. Index Terms: Transient Enclosure Voltage (TEV), Gas Insulated System (GIS), Very Fast Transient Overvoltages (VFTO) Transient Ground Potential Rise (TGPR), Disconnector Switch
The main stake is to detect a defective component or likely to become it during manufacture or inservice inspections, while improving control productivity. In this context, we develop a simulation tool of EC fastened structures testing, integrated to the ANSYS platform, aimed at conceiving testing methods, optimizing and qualifying it. The finite element method has been chosen, it is suitable for this type of problem. Various configurations have been considered for the inspection of a target with a defect in different thicknesses. Due to the impossibility to detect a defect located at a distance much greater than the skin depth δ. Indeed, the eddy currents amplitude are less than 95% of the maximum amplitude beyond a depth greater than 3 δ. We are interested in the detection of defects located at depths higher to three times the skin depth.
Measurement of energy loss of light ions using silicon surface barrier detectoreSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Experimental stress analysis BE notes by mohammed imranMohammed Imran
7th semester, Experimental stress analysis notes as per VTU syllabus by Mohammed Imran, Asst. Prof., Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ghousia College of Engineering-Ramanagaram-562159
Experimental evaluation of strain in concrete elementsnisarg gandhi
Evaluation of strain using
1) mech strain gauge
2) elec strain gauge
also calculation of modulus of elasticity using
1) secant modulus
2) chord modulus
also for the procedure to use electrical strain gauge see the following link
https://drive.google.com/open?id=0Bw9bdaDxJsb8enFZOFhlRWFMYWs&authuser=1
Determination of strength and stress-strain relationships of a cylindrical specimen of reconstituted specimen using Consolidated Drained (CD) Triaxial Test.
1. A series of drained triaxial tests under four different initial states were conducted on Yamuna River sand. The results consist of simple stress-strain relation, change in volume behaviour were plotted.
2. Basic stress-strain relation with volume behaviour was presented in plot. The results for densely prepared sand samples show an expected behaviour. There is a significant difference in peak and residual deviatoric stress (q) as can be depicted form the plot.
3. With increase in confining stress, load carrying capacity of specimen increases.
4. Saturation value ‘B’ must be acquired to be more than 0.95 before starting the isotropic consolidation phase in CD test.
5. CD tests are performed at much slower strain rate as compared to CU tests for the same soil. The strain rate for CD test can be chosen approx. 8-10 times lower than the CU test.
6. It is important to have no pore water pressure generation throughout the shearing phase of CD test or in other words strain rate must be so small that pore water pressure must get dissipated quickly when specimen is subjected to compression loading in CD test.
7. In CD test, volumetric strain versus axial strain relationship shows contractive response for NC soils and dilative response for OC soils. (NC = Normally consolidated, OC = Over consolidated)
References:
1. IS: 2720 (Part 11):1993- Determination of the shear strength parameters of a specimen tested in unconsolidated undrained triaxial compression without the measurement of pore water pressure (first revision). Reaffirmed- Dec 2016.
2. IS: 2720 (Part 12):1981- Determination of Shear Strength parameters of Soil from consolidated undrained triaxial compression test with measurement of pore water pressure (first revision). Reaffirmed- Dec 2016.
3. ASTM D7181-11. Method for Consolidated Drained Triaxial Compression Test for Soils; ASTM: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2011.
Determination of strength and stress-strain relationships of a cylindrical specimen of reconstituted specimen using Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) Triaxial Test.
Learning Outcomes:-
1. With increase in confining stress, the load carrying capacity of the sample increased as evident from the curve showing higher peak deviatoric stress.
2. There is slight variation in the value of actual angle of failure plane (θf = 66.5°) and the value obtained from graph (θf)= 56.01°.
3. In this test, the failure plane is not forced, the stress distribution of failure plane is fairly uniform and specimen can fail on any weak plane or can simply bulge.
4. On plotting Mohr Circle, the failure envelope gave intercept of 155.29 kPa while the s-t plot gave 143.38 kPa.
Determination of consolidation properties (like CV, CC, CS, t90, mv, av) of the given soil specimen (Dhanauri Clay) by conducting one-dimensional consolidation test using fixed ring type setup.
Learning Outcomes:-
1. From consolidation test, the following information can be determined:
a) Amount of settlement experienced by a soil-structure after load application
b) Rate of consolidation of soil under a normal load
c) Degree of consolidation at any time
d) Pressure void ratio relationship
e) Coefficient of consolidation at various successively increasing pressure
f) Permeability of soil at various stages of loading
g) Compression index of soil
2. The general procedure for laboratory evaluation of consolidation characteristics of soils involves a one-dimensional consolidation.
This is necessary because of:
• Difficulty of instrumentation for recording volume change and natural strains.
• Complexities in mathematical analysis of three-dimensional consolidation.
3. The underlying assumptions in the derivation of the mathematical equations are as follows:
• The clay layer is homogeneous.
• The clay layer is saturated, the compression of the soil layer is due to the change in volume only, which in turn, is due to the squeezing out of water from the void spaces.
• Darcy’s law is valid.
• Deformation of soil occurs only in the direction of the load application.
4. Effects of ring friction
• During loading reduce stress acted on the specimen, specimen compresses less.
• During rebound reduce the swelling tendency specimen swell less.
• Flatten the swelling curve at low stress level.
5. Resultant Cv decreases with increasing stress, implying its NC clay.
6. Sample was preserved in polybag to check loss of moisture content.
Determination of undrained shear strength of cohesive soil using lab vane shear test.
1. The formula for shear strength is based on following assumptions:
● Shearing Strength in the Horizontal and Vertical directions are the same.
● At the peak value, Shear Strength is equally mobilized at the end surface as well as at the center,
● The shear surface is cylindrical and has a diameter equal to the diameter of the vane.
2. The test gives the undrained strength of the soil. The undisturbed and remolded strength obtained are also useful for evaluating the sensitivity of soil. The data acquired from vane shear test can be used to determine: Undrained shear strength, Evaluate rapid loading strength for total stress analysis, Sensitivity of soil to disturbance, Analysis of stability problems with embankment on soft ground.
3. With increase in water content undrained shear strength decreases for given soil sample.
4. It is a quick test so it can be assumed as an undrained test.
Method for determination of shear strength of soil (Badarpur Sand) with a maximum particle size of 4.75 mm in drained conditions using Direct Shear Test apparatus.
It is a Floating Box type test in which upper half box is floating due to application of vertical loading resulting in lateral confinement thus generating sufficient friction which holds the upper half of shear box.
In the shear box test, the specimen is not failing along its weakest plane but along a predetermined or induced failure plane i.e. horizontal plane separating the two halves of the shear box. This is the main drawback of this test.
Moreover, during loading, the state of stress cannot be evaluated. It can be evaluated only at failure condition. Also, failure is progressive.
The angle of shearing resistance of sands depends on state of compaction, coarseness of grains, particle shape and roughness of grain surface and grading. It varies between 28° (uniformly graded sands with round grains in very loose state) to 46° (well graded sand with angular grains in dense state).
Direct shear test is simple and faster to operate. As thinner specimens are used in shear box, they facilitate drainage of pore water from a saturated sample in less time. This test is also useful to study friction between two materials – one material in lower half of box and another material in the upper half of box.
In general, loose sands expand and dense sands contract in volume on shearing. There is a void ratio at which either expansion contraction in volume takes place. This void ratio is called critical void ratio. Expansion or contraction can be inferred from the movement of vertical dial gauge during shearing.
Determination of Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit of given soil sample.
The four combinations of Bentonite-Kaolinite mixture gave following trend. In general with decrease in bentonite content and increase in kaolinite content, the Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index starts decreasing.
The liquid limit is the moisture content at which the groove, formed by a standard tool into the sample of soil taken in the standard cup, closes for 12 mm on being given 25 blows in a standard manner. This is the limiting moisture content at which the cohesive soil passes from plastic state to liquid state.
Liquid limit is significant to know the stress history and general properties of the soil met with construction. From the results of liquid limit the compression index may be estimated.
The compression index value will help us in settlement analysis.
If the natural moisture content of soil is closer to liquid limit, the soil can be considered as soft. If the moisture content is lesser than liquid limit, the soil is brittle and stiffer.
Determination of water content-dry density relation using light compaction. (Standard Proctor Test)
1. Maximum dry density (MDD) = 1.72 g/cm³
2. Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) = 18.3 %
3. Max. Saturation = 92.17 %
4. Min. Void Ratio = 0.549
The "acceptable zone" represents the zone of acceptable water content vs dry unit weight combinations based on typical current practice. The designer will usually require that the dry unit weight γd of the compacted soil be greater than or equal to a percentage P of the maximum dry unit weight Γd, max from a laboratory compaction test.
Out of four samples, in Delhi Silt highest value of max. dry density = 1.86 g/cc was achieved at a moisture content of 13% as compared to 1.72 g/cc for Dhanauri clay at 18.3%. It is seen that as the proportion of clay is increased in the soil mix the Optimum Moisture Increases and the Maximum Dry Density Decreases.
Determination of minimum and maximum density of given soil specimen (Badarpur Sand).
1. Average minimum dry density of Badarpur sand came out to be 1.469 g/cm³ which is greater than Yamuna River sand by about 11%.
2. Average maximum dry density of Badarpur sand came out to be 1.679 g/cm³ which is greater than Yamuna River sand by about 15%.
3. By visual inspection, Badarpur sand was found ANGULAR in shape.
4. Γd, max and Γd, min values are not unique or intrinsic properties of coarse-grained soils and depend not only on material properties, but also on the variations in laboratory determination methods.
5. A potential for degradation of the soil grains, i.e., grain crushing, exists during testing depending on the method used to determine Γd, max. The amount of energy applied to the sand during compaction is an important factor. There is a need to investigate the issue further and possibly arrive at universally acceptable laboratory methods to determine these values, which address all possible influencing factors.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
Contact with Dawood Bhai Just call on +92322-6382012 and we'll help you. We'll solve all your problems within 12 to 24 hours and with 101% guarantee and with astrology systematic. If you want to take any personal or professional advice then also you can call us on +92322-6382012 , ONLINE LOVE PROBLEM & Other all types of Daily Life Problem's.Then CALL or WHATSAPP us on +92322-6382012 and Get all these problems solutions here by Amil Baba DAWOOD BANGALI
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Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Governing Equations for Fundamental Aerodynamics_Anderson2010.pdf
Electrical Resistivity Test
1. 1
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi
Submitted By:
Abhinav Kumar
Soil Engineering Lab
REPORT TITLE (07)
Electrical Resistivity Test
Disclaimer: This presentation is for educational purposes only. Opinions or points of
view expressed in this presentation represent the view of the presenter, and does not
necessarily represent the official position or policies of IIT Delhi. Nothing in this
presentation constitutes legal advice. The individuals appearing in this presentation, if
any, are depicted for illustrative purposes only and are presumed innocent until proven
guilty in a court of law. Under no circumstance shall we have any liability to you for any
loss or damage of any kind incurred as a result of the use of the data or reliance on any
information provided. Your use of the document and your reliance on any information is
solely at your own risk
2. 2
Objective: To perform geological exploration by the geophysical method of electrical resistivity near
block IV area of IIT Delhi
Equipments :
Resistivity Meter: An instrument used to carry out
resistivity surveys that usually has a current
transmitter and voltage-measuring circuitry.
Electrodes
3. 3
Measuring tape, Hammer, Pegs, Wires for connections.
Theory:
The purpose of the electrical resistivity survey is to determine the subsurface resistivity distribution by
making measurements on the ground surface. It measures the resistance to the flow of electrons. This
method does not say anything about the engineering properties/strength of the soil. From these
measurements, the true resistivity of the subsurface can be estimated. The ground resistivity is related
to various geological parameters, such as the mineral and fluid content, porosity, and degree of water
saturation in rock.
It has the following purposes:
a. To rapidly explore the subsurface conditions in order to locate groundwater, the
thickness of overburden, depth to different rock types, and stratigraphic
features.
b. To delineate the zones of seepage & identify the source around various
structures of river valley projects.
c. Assessment of groundwater potential, quality, and determination of aquifer
characteristics.
d. To correlate data from resistivity survey with those obtained from borehole and
trial pit logs.
Based on the relative location of the current and potential rods, there are various
arrangements that can be adopted for conducting this test. Two of the most popular
arrangements are:
a. Wenner method
b. Schlumberger method
This method primarily measures the resistance to the flow of electrons. This method does not say
anything about the engineering properties / strength of soil. As the flow of current is effected by the
presence of ions, thus electrical resistivity is sensitive to moisture and salinity. The more the moisture
content, the lesser the resistivity. Thus, dry soil has the highest resistivity while the saturated soil has
the least. Also, the more the concentration of dissolved salts, the lesser the resistivity. The value of
electrical resistivity also gets effected by the presence of underground conducting material like drains,
pipes etc. The graph below shows value of Resistivity for different type of material.
4. 4
Fig- 1: Resistivity values for different material.
Based on the relative location of the current and potential rods, there are various arrangements that
can be adopted for conducting this test. Two of the most popular arrangements are:
(i) Wenner Arrangement
(ii) Schlumberger Arrangement
Fig No.2: Wenner Arrangement
The distance between current rods = 3 times the distance between the potential rods
5. 5
Fig No.3: Schlumberger arrangement
Testing Procedure, Results and Discussion:
Wenner Arrangement:
Testing is carried out by Group1 Group2 combinedly for a particular line AB parallel to block IV
building.
In the study area, an electrical current was run through a pair of electrodes (A and B) placed at varying
spacings expanding symmetrically from a central point, while an additional pair of electrodes (M and N)
measured the surface expression of the resulting potential field. The distance between M & N i.e., a is
varied as a= 1m, 2m,4m,6m and 8.0m and Resistance as well as Apparent Resistivity are measured by
Resistivity meter.
The results of Wenner arrangement are shown in the table below:
Table 1: Results of Wenner arrangement
SL No a (m) AB Resistance R (Ohms) Apparent resistivity
(ohms-metre) pa
a/ƿa
Remarks
1 1 3 5.19 32.5 0.030769
2 2 6 2.25 28.32 0.070621
3 4 12 1.55 39.05 0.102433
4 6 18 0.907 34.19 0.17549
5 8 24 0.59 29.52 0.271003
6. 6
Inverse Slope Method: Using inverse slope method, Now the graph between ‘a’ in x axis and a/ƿa
in Y axis is plotted.
Fig No. 6, Inverse slope method graph, Wenner Arrangement
From the graph, it is observed that there are 3-line segments, which indicates presence of 3 layers
Now using Inverse slope method, from graph (Fig. No. 6):
Resistivity of layer 1 = 26.67 Ohm-m, depth (d1) = 0.075 m (Thickness of first layer)
Resistivity of layer 2 = 80 Ohm-m, depth (d2) = 0.1 m, Thickness of second layer= (0.1-0.075) = 0.025 m
Resistivity of Layer 3= 22.85 Ohm-m, depth (d3) = 0.275 m , (0.275-0.1)m, Thickness of third
layer=0.175 m
Schlumberger Arrangement:
Testing is carried out by Group3 & Group 4 combinedly for a same line AB parallel to block IV building.
In the study area, an electrical current was run through a pair of electrodes (A and B) placed at varying
spacings expanding symmetrically from a central point, while an additional pair of electrodes (M and N)
measured the surface expression of the resulting potential field. The distance between M & N i.e. a is
varied as a= 1m, 2m,4m,6m and 8.0m and Resistance as well as Apparent Resistivity are measured by
Resistivity meter.
The results of Schlumberger arrangement are shown in the table below:
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a/pa
a
Layer : 1
Layer : 2
Layer : 3
d3
d2
d 1
7. 7
Table No. 2 : Results of Schlumberger arrangement
SL
No
a
(m)
MN(m) AB
(m)
AB/2 Resistance R
(Ohms)
Apparent
resistivity
(ohms-metre)ƿa
(AB/2)/ƿa
Remarks
1 1 1 5 2.5 2.8 57.78 0.043
2 1.6 1.6 8 4.0 1.49 45.03 0.089
3 2.2 2.2 11 5.5 1.05 43.54 0.126
4 2.8 2.8 14 7.0 0.69 36.56 0.191
5 3.4 3.4 17 8.5 0.52 33.72 0.252
6 4.0 4.0 20.0 10.0 0.42 31.49 0.318
Inverse Slope Method: Using inverse slope method, Now the graph between ‘AB/2’ in x axis and
(AB/2)/ƿa in Y axis is plotted. From the graph it is clear that, in Schlumberger arrangement also we can
find presence of 3 layers of soil
Figure No. 7, Inverse slope method graph, Schlumberger Arrangement
From the graph, it is observed that there are 3-line segments, which indicates presence of 3 layers
Now using Inverse slope method, from graph (Fig. No. 7):
Resistivity of layer 1 = 22.22 Ohm-m, depth (d1) = 0.060 m (Thickness of first layer)
Resistivity of layer 2 = 53.33 Ohm-m, depth (d2) = 0.085 m, Thickness of second layer
= (0.085-0.060) = 0.0275 m
Resistivity of Layer 3= 31.37 Ohm-m, depth (d3) = 0.23 m , (0.23-0.085)m, Thickness of third
layer=0.1425 m
0
0.025
0.05
0.075
0.1
0.125
0.15
0.175
0.2
0.225
0.25
0.275
0.3
0.325
0.35
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(AB/2)/pa
AB/2
Layer : 1
Layer : 2
Layer : 3
d1
d 2
d 3
8. 8
Resistivity VS AB/2 graph, Schlumberger Arrangement
Comparison of Wenner and Schlumberger Arrangement
SL No Wenner Schlumberger
1 0.075 m 0.060 m Thickness of 1st Layer
2 0.025 m 0.0275 m Thickness of 2nd Layer
3 0.175 m 0.1425 m Thickness of 3rd Layer
4 26.67 Ohm-m 22.22 Ohm-m Apparent Resistivity
(1st Layer)
5 80 Ohm-m 53.33 Ohm-m Apparent Resistivity
(2nd layer)
6 22.85 m 31.37 Ohm-m Apparent Resistivity
(3rd Layer)
9. 9
Electrical Resistivity Tomography:
All the groups combinedly have performed Electrical Resistivity Tomography on Demo basis. In this
process, 18 electrodes have been placed in the ground @ 1.0 m interval. The model generated by
using software is shown below as
Fig No. 8: Model developed by Electrical Resistivity Method
As per above model, the apparent resistivity varies from 29.2 Ohm-m to 52.9 Ohm-m.
Discussion:
1. The objective of this research is to evaluate the water potential of the study area by
investigating the shallow subsurface aquifer material properties and moisture distribution using
2D ERT techniques. During the shallow tube well design and development in the study area,
some patches of land does have good potential and some does not, which motivated to
understand the aquifer properties, aquifer material, and response. Hence the 2D ERT was
carried out, oriented around the pond in the center and five ERT profiles.