The document discusses electrocardiograms (EKGs) and how they are used to analyze the electrical activity of the heart. It provides the following key points:
1. An EKG records the electrical signals produced by the heart during each beat and can be used to identify components like the P, QRS, and T waves that correspond to different phases of the heartbeat.
2. Abnormalities in the shape, timing, or presence of these components can provide clues about potential heart conditions like arrhythmias, damage to heart muscle, or blockages.
3. The experiment involves using EKG sensors to record a subject's heartbeat over time, identifying the normal waveform components and calculating heart rate,
An electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG) records the electrical activity of the heart over time. It shows different wave components including the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave that represent the spread of electrical impulses through the heart's chambers and their contraction and relaxation. By analyzing the timing and appearance of these waves, doctors can detect abnormalities that may indicate heart conditions. In this experiment, students will use an EKG sensor to record their own heart activity, identify the wave components, and calculate their heart rate. They will also compare recordings from standard and alternate lead placements.
The document discusses electrocardiograms (EKGs) and how they are used to analyze the electrical activity of the heart. It provides the following key points:
- An EKG records the electrical events in the heart as it beats, showing the natural conduction pathways and contractions of the atria and ventricles.
- The different waves in an EKG (P, QRS, T) represent different stages of the heartbeat and can indicate heart conditions if abnormal.
- By placing electrodes in different positions, additional information can be gleaned from EKG tracings about the direction of electrical activity in the heart.
- Doctors can analyze EKG tracings for abnormalities that may indicate conditions like
An electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG) records the electrical activity of the heart over time. It shows different wave components including the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave that are associated with different events in the cardiac cycle. By analyzing the timing and appearance of these waves, healthcare professionals can detect abnormalities that may indicate disorders like arrhythmias, heart attacks, or damage to heart muscle tissue. This experiment uses an EKG sensor to record a subject's heartbeat and analyze the timing of waves to determine heart rate and the direction of electrical conduction in the ventricles.
This document provides an overview of electrocardiogram (ECG) interpretation. It discusses the components of ECG complexes and intervals, including the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave. It correlates the ECG tracings with the electrical events in the heart during excitation and recovery. Key points include that the P wave represents atrial depolarization, the QRS complex represents ventricular depolarization, and the T wave represents ventricular recovery. It also discusses normal values for amplitude and duration of the various complexes.
This document provides an overview of electrocardiography (ECG). It defines an ECG as a tracing of the heart's electrical activity. The objectives are to learn how to perform an ECG, interpret the results, and recognize various pathologies. Key points covered include electrode placement, components of the ECG wave, the physiology of cardiac conduction, interpreting the rate, rhythm, axis, and analyzing P, QRS, and T waves. Causes of axis deviations and details on analyzing the P wave are also summarized.
ECG analysis part (1) \ Mohammad Al-me`ani. , MSN, RN. almaani
The document discusses ECG analysis and provides details about:
1. The ECG records the electrical activity of the heart through electrodes placed on the skin. A 12-lead ECG provides views from 12 reference points.
2. The ECG traces the heart's electrical impulses on graph paper. It displays depolarization and repolarization processes and is used to diagnose various cardiac conditions.
3. The heart's conductive system includes the sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node, bundle of His, left and right bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers which coordinate heart rhythm and contractions.
QRS Detection Algorithm Using Savitzky-Golay FilterIDES Editor
This paper presents a modification to the Pan-Tompkins algorithm for QRS detection in electrocardiogram (ECG) signals. The Pan-Tompkins algorithm uses a high pass filter and differentiator to detect QRS complexes. This paper replaces the high pass filter and differentiator with a Savitzky-Golay filter. The modified algorithm and original Pan-Tompkins algorithm are applied to normal and diseased ECG data showing ventricular tachyarrhythmia. The results show that the modified algorithm can detect QRS complexes with higher amplitudes compared to the original algorithm, without requiring a high pass filter or differentiator.
This document discusses the implications of 3D mapping in electrophysiology procedures. It provides an overview of common arrhythmias treated with catheter ablation such as WPW syndrome, AVNRT, atrial flutter, and atrial fibrillation. It describes the typical sequence of an EP study and ablation procedure. It also discusses classification of tachycardias as focal or macroreentrant, and different reentry patterns. The document highlights the development of 3D mapping technologies including contact and non-contact mapping systems, and their ability to create 3D geometry and electroanatomic maps with integration of CT/MRI images. It reviews studies validating the reduction of fluoroscopy time with 3D mapping approaches.
An electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG) records the electrical activity of the heart over time. It shows different wave components including the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave that represent the spread of electrical impulses through the heart's chambers and their contraction and relaxation. By analyzing the timing and appearance of these waves, doctors can detect abnormalities that may indicate heart conditions. In this experiment, students will use an EKG sensor to record their own heart activity, identify the wave components, and calculate their heart rate. They will also compare recordings from standard and alternate lead placements.
The document discusses electrocardiograms (EKGs) and how they are used to analyze the electrical activity of the heart. It provides the following key points:
- An EKG records the electrical events in the heart as it beats, showing the natural conduction pathways and contractions of the atria and ventricles.
- The different waves in an EKG (P, QRS, T) represent different stages of the heartbeat and can indicate heart conditions if abnormal.
- By placing electrodes in different positions, additional information can be gleaned from EKG tracings about the direction of electrical activity in the heart.
- Doctors can analyze EKG tracings for abnormalities that may indicate conditions like
An electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG) records the electrical activity of the heart over time. It shows different wave components including the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave that are associated with different events in the cardiac cycle. By analyzing the timing and appearance of these waves, healthcare professionals can detect abnormalities that may indicate disorders like arrhythmias, heart attacks, or damage to heart muscle tissue. This experiment uses an EKG sensor to record a subject's heartbeat and analyze the timing of waves to determine heart rate and the direction of electrical conduction in the ventricles.
This document provides an overview of electrocardiogram (ECG) interpretation. It discusses the components of ECG complexes and intervals, including the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave. It correlates the ECG tracings with the electrical events in the heart during excitation and recovery. Key points include that the P wave represents atrial depolarization, the QRS complex represents ventricular depolarization, and the T wave represents ventricular recovery. It also discusses normal values for amplitude and duration of the various complexes.
This document provides an overview of electrocardiography (ECG). It defines an ECG as a tracing of the heart's electrical activity. The objectives are to learn how to perform an ECG, interpret the results, and recognize various pathologies. Key points covered include electrode placement, components of the ECG wave, the physiology of cardiac conduction, interpreting the rate, rhythm, axis, and analyzing P, QRS, and T waves. Causes of axis deviations and details on analyzing the P wave are also summarized.
ECG analysis part (1) \ Mohammad Al-me`ani. , MSN, RN. almaani
The document discusses ECG analysis and provides details about:
1. The ECG records the electrical activity of the heart through electrodes placed on the skin. A 12-lead ECG provides views from 12 reference points.
2. The ECG traces the heart's electrical impulses on graph paper. It displays depolarization and repolarization processes and is used to diagnose various cardiac conditions.
3. The heart's conductive system includes the sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node, bundle of His, left and right bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers which coordinate heart rhythm and contractions.
QRS Detection Algorithm Using Savitzky-Golay FilterIDES Editor
This paper presents a modification to the Pan-Tompkins algorithm for QRS detection in electrocardiogram (ECG) signals. The Pan-Tompkins algorithm uses a high pass filter and differentiator to detect QRS complexes. This paper replaces the high pass filter and differentiator with a Savitzky-Golay filter. The modified algorithm and original Pan-Tompkins algorithm are applied to normal and diseased ECG data showing ventricular tachyarrhythmia. The results show that the modified algorithm can detect QRS complexes with higher amplitudes compared to the original algorithm, without requiring a high pass filter or differentiator.
This document discusses the implications of 3D mapping in electrophysiology procedures. It provides an overview of common arrhythmias treated with catheter ablation such as WPW syndrome, AVNRT, atrial flutter, and atrial fibrillation. It describes the typical sequence of an EP study and ablation procedure. It also discusses classification of tachycardias as focal or macroreentrant, and different reentry patterns. The document highlights the development of 3D mapping technologies including contact and non-contact mapping systems, and their ability to create 3D geometry and electroanatomic maps with integration of CT/MRI images. It reviews studies validating the reduction of fluoroscopy time with 3D mapping approaches.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
This document discusses the electrocardiogram (ECG) and the electrical activity of the heart. It provides information on how ECG is used to measure heart rate and detect any heart damage. The basics of heart anatomy and function are described, including the four chambers and pacemaking nodes. The key waves of the ECG are defined, such as the P, QRS, and T waves. Methods for detecting QRS complexes are outlined, including filtering, differentiation, and thresholding. Potential artifacts in ECG signals are also reviewed, such as noise, baseline wandering, and powerline interference.
The document discusses electrocardiography (ECG), which is a method for recording the electrical activity of the heart. It provides definitions of ECG and electrocardiogram. It then covers the historical development of ECG from early experiments in the 1800s to the invention of the electrocardiograph by Willem Einthoven in the early 1900s. The document goes on to discuss membrane potentials, action potentials, and how the propagation of electrical signals through the heart is recorded via ECG leads to analyze the heart's function.
This document provides information about electrophysiologic studies (EPS), including the purpose, requirements, procedures, and how to read EPS tracings. An EPS involves placing electrode catheters in the heart to record electrical activity and stimulate heart tissues to evaluate arrhythmias. Key aspects of an EPS include determining the sequence of impulse propagation in the atria, ventricles, and conduction system during normal sinus rhythm, pacing, and arrhythmias to diagnose arrhythmia type and location.
Long term post Ventricular tachycardia ablation guided by non contact mapping...salah_atta
This study assessed radiofrequency catheter ablation guided by non-contact mapping for treatment of monomorphic ventricular tachycardia after myocardial infarction. Fifteen patients underwent either targeted ablation of exit sites and areas of slow conduction (Group I, 7 patients) or substrate modification with linear ablation lesions (Group II, 8 patients). Acute success rates were high for both groups. Long term success was also good, with no recurrence of ablated ventricular tachycardias during follow up for most patients. Substrate modification using linear ablation guided by non-contact mapping showed promise for preventing reinduction of arrhythmias.
This document discusses how pacing can help during electrophysiology studies (EPS). It describes ventricular pacing and how it can show normal retrograde activation sequences or the presence of an accessory pathway. It also discusses ventricular refractory periods and how pacing can induce arrhythmias. The document then discusses assessing atrioventricular conduction, including basic conduction intervals and response to incremental atrial pacing. It notes the indications of infra-Hisian block and disease in the His-Purkinje system as potential reasons for permanent pacing in symptomatic patients.
Early results of RF ablation in assiut universitysalah_atta
1) The document reports on the early experience of a cardiology team in Assiut, Egypt performing radiofrequency catheter ablation to treat cardiac arrhythmias.
2) Over 12 months, the team successfully treated 20 patients with various arrhythmias including AV nodal reentrant tachycardia, accessory pathway dependent tachycardia, and atrial flutter.
3) The procedures achieved a high primary success rate of 100% with only one recurrence during follow up, demonstrating the effectiveness of bringing this treatment to patients in upper Egypt.
This document discusses temporary pacemakers. It explains that temporary pacemakers are indicated for bradyarrhythmias, conduction blocks, and permanent pacemaker malfunctions. It describes the principles of pacing, including electrical concepts, pacing types, wiring systems, modes of pacing, and parameters like output and sensitivity. It illustrates normal pacemaker behavior and various abnormalities including failure to capture, failure to sense, oversensing, competition, and Wenckebach behavior. It discusses evaluating underlying rhythm, assessing pacemaker strips, and troubleshooting issues like changing settings, electrodes, batteries, or reversing polarity.
An electrocardiogram (ECG) records the electrical activity of the heart over time via electrodes placed on the skin. It detects the heart's electrical dipole by measuring the potential differences between electrodes. The ECG can be used to diagnose conditions like heart attacks, arrhythmias, electrolyte imbalances, and more by analyzing features of the P, QRS, and T waves as well as intervals between them. To perform an ECG, electrodes are attached to the patient's limbs after cleaning the skin. The ECG machine then records the signals from multiple leads to analyze the heart's rate, rhythm, and electrical axis.
The document discusses methods for determining heart rate and QRS axis from an ECG.
To determine heart rate, it describes the 300 rule where the number of large boxes between beats is divided into 300. It also describes the 10 second rule where the number of beats in 10 seconds is multiplied by 6.
To determine QRS axis, it explains using the quadrant method to qualitatively classify the axis as normal, left axis deviation, right axis deviation, or extreme based on the positivity or negativity of the QRS complex in various leads. It also describes the equiphasic lead method to semi-quantitatively estimate the axis.
This document discusses various types of arrhythmias including their mechanisms, diagnosis using electrophysiologic studies, and management. It covers topics such as AV nodal reentrant tachycardia, orthodromic reciprocating tachycardia, atrial flutter, atrial tachycardia, Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, and differentiation of arrhythmias using pacing techniques during electrophysiology studies. The role of EPS in establishing mechanisms of arrhythmias and guiding treatment is emphasized.
This document summarizes two cases of patients with accessory pathways. In the first case, the patient presented with a delta wave on their ECG indicating a right-sided accessory pathway. Mapping and ablation were successful in isolating the pathway located in the posterior septal region of the right atrium. In the second case, the patient had a normal ECG but ablation of a left-sided anterior septal pathway terminated the arrhythmia induced by pacing. Both cases demonstrate the mapping and successful ablation of concealed accessory pathways.
This document provides an overview of electrocardiography (EKG/ECG) and how to interpret EKG results. It discusses:
1) Students will learn how to perform and analyze EKG tests, including how to attach electrodes and read EKG tracings.
2) It describes the normal waves of the EKG (P, QRS, ST-T) and intervals (PR, QT).
3) Guidelines are provided for interpreting EKGs through measuring waves and intervals, analyzing rhythm and conduction, describing waveforms, and comparing to prior tests. Characteristics of normal EKGs are also outlined.
Tachyarrhythmias 2020 (for the undergraduates)salah_atta
This document provides an overview of tachyarrhythmias. It defines tachyarrhythmias as abnormal heart rhythms with a heart rate exceeding 100 beats per minute. The document classifies and describes various types of tachyarrhythmias including extrasystoles, sinus tachycardia, supraventricular tachycardias such as AV nodal reentrant tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, and ventricular tachycardias. It discusses the mechanisms, clinical presentations, diagnostic tools and management options for these arrhythmias.
Basics of Electrophysiologic study, part 1 (2020)salah_atta
An electrophysiologic study involves inserting electrode catheters into the heart to record electrical activity and induce arrhythmias. The document discusses:
1. The procedure involves placing catheters in the heart to record electrograms from the atria, His bundle, ventricles and coronary sinus.
2. The aims are diagnostic to evaluate arrhythmias and bradycardias, and therapeutic for ablation of arrhythmias.
3. Key measurements taken include intervals between P waves, His bundle activation and QRS complex to identify conduction abnormalities.
4. Tracings are analyzed to determine the rhythm, sequence of activation, effects of pacing, and identify arrhythmia mechanisms like accessory pathways
Ecg signal processing for detection and classification of cardiac diseasesIAEME Publication
This document discusses ECG signal processing for detecting and classifying cardiac diseases. It begins with an overview of heart anatomy and the cardiac conduction system. It then discusses properties of cardiac muscle cells and ECG measurements. The main types of cardiac arrhythmias and diseases that can be detected from ECG signals are outlined, including ventricular fibrillation, atrial fibrillation, premature ventricular contractions, ischemia, and myocardial infarction. Detection methods focus on time-domain analysis of ECG signals using algorithms like Pan-Tompkins to identify arrhythmias, with results verified against databases like MIT-BIH and PhysioNet.
The document provides an overview of basic ICD treatment and concepts, including the evolution of ICDs, device components, automated functions such as sensing, detection, and SVT discrimination, and troubleshooting. Key aspects of ICD systems like battery depletion, lead design, and programming are discussed at a high level.
This document describes equipment and settings used in electrophysiology (EP) studies. It lists various pieces of equipment including fluoroscopy units, recording systems, cardiac stimulators, ablation generators, 3D mapping systems, and intracardiac ultrasound units. It provides details on catheter types, positions, and settings for standard EP studies including studies of arrhythmias like supraventricular tachycardia. It also explains pacing protocols and techniques used in EP studies to evaluate conduction properties and induce arrhythmias.
This document discusses electrocardiograms (EKGs) and how they are used to analyze the electrical activity of the heart. It provides the following key points:
1. An EKG records the electrical signals produced by the heart during each beat and can be used to determine heart rate and identify any abnormalities.
2. The main components of an EKG waveform are labeled P, Q, R, S, and T and correspond to different stages of electrical conduction through the heart.
3. Doctors can examine EKG tracings to diagnose conditions like arrhythmias, heart attacks, or damage to heart muscle based on changes in waveforms and timing of intervals between components.
The document discusses electrocardiograms (EKGs) and how they are used to analyze the electrical activity of the heart. It provides the following key points:
- An EKG records the electrical events in the heart as it beats, showing the natural conduction pathways and contractions of the atria and ventricles.
- The different waves in an EKG (P, QRS, T) represent different stages of the heartbeat and electrical conduction through the heart.
- Doctors can examine an EKG to check for abnormalities that may indicate heart conditions like arrhythmias, damage to heart muscle tissue, or heart attacks.
- In this experiment, students will record their own EKG, identify
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
This document discusses the electrocardiogram (ECG) and the electrical activity of the heart. It provides information on how ECG is used to measure heart rate and detect any heart damage. The basics of heart anatomy and function are described, including the four chambers and pacemaking nodes. The key waves of the ECG are defined, such as the P, QRS, and T waves. Methods for detecting QRS complexes are outlined, including filtering, differentiation, and thresholding. Potential artifacts in ECG signals are also reviewed, such as noise, baseline wandering, and powerline interference.
The document discusses electrocardiography (ECG), which is a method for recording the electrical activity of the heart. It provides definitions of ECG and electrocardiogram. It then covers the historical development of ECG from early experiments in the 1800s to the invention of the electrocardiograph by Willem Einthoven in the early 1900s. The document goes on to discuss membrane potentials, action potentials, and how the propagation of electrical signals through the heart is recorded via ECG leads to analyze the heart's function.
This document provides information about electrophysiologic studies (EPS), including the purpose, requirements, procedures, and how to read EPS tracings. An EPS involves placing electrode catheters in the heart to record electrical activity and stimulate heart tissues to evaluate arrhythmias. Key aspects of an EPS include determining the sequence of impulse propagation in the atria, ventricles, and conduction system during normal sinus rhythm, pacing, and arrhythmias to diagnose arrhythmia type and location.
Long term post Ventricular tachycardia ablation guided by non contact mapping...salah_atta
This study assessed radiofrequency catheter ablation guided by non-contact mapping for treatment of monomorphic ventricular tachycardia after myocardial infarction. Fifteen patients underwent either targeted ablation of exit sites and areas of slow conduction (Group I, 7 patients) or substrate modification with linear ablation lesions (Group II, 8 patients). Acute success rates were high for both groups. Long term success was also good, with no recurrence of ablated ventricular tachycardias during follow up for most patients. Substrate modification using linear ablation guided by non-contact mapping showed promise for preventing reinduction of arrhythmias.
This document discusses how pacing can help during electrophysiology studies (EPS). It describes ventricular pacing and how it can show normal retrograde activation sequences or the presence of an accessory pathway. It also discusses ventricular refractory periods and how pacing can induce arrhythmias. The document then discusses assessing atrioventricular conduction, including basic conduction intervals and response to incremental atrial pacing. It notes the indications of infra-Hisian block and disease in the His-Purkinje system as potential reasons for permanent pacing in symptomatic patients.
Early results of RF ablation in assiut universitysalah_atta
1) The document reports on the early experience of a cardiology team in Assiut, Egypt performing radiofrequency catheter ablation to treat cardiac arrhythmias.
2) Over 12 months, the team successfully treated 20 patients with various arrhythmias including AV nodal reentrant tachycardia, accessory pathway dependent tachycardia, and atrial flutter.
3) The procedures achieved a high primary success rate of 100% with only one recurrence during follow up, demonstrating the effectiveness of bringing this treatment to patients in upper Egypt.
This document discusses temporary pacemakers. It explains that temporary pacemakers are indicated for bradyarrhythmias, conduction blocks, and permanent pacemaker malfunctions. It describes the principles of pacing, including electrical concepts, pacing types, wiring systems, modes of pacing, and parameters like output and sensitivity. It illustrates normal pacemaker behavior and various abnormalities including failure to capture, failure to sense, oversensing, competition, and Wenckebach behavior. It discusses evaluating underlying rhythm, assessing pacemaker strips, and troubleshooting issues like changing settings, electrodes, batteries, or reversing polarity.
An electrocardiogram (ECG) records the electrical activity of the heart over time via electrodes placed on the skin. It detects the heart's electrical dipole by measuring the potential differences between electrodes. The ECG can be used to diagnose conditions like heart attacks, arrhythmias, electrolyte imbalances, and more by analyzing features of the P, QRS, and T waves as well as intervals between them. To perform an ECG, electrodes are attached to the patient's limbs after cleaning the skin. The ECG machine then records the signals from multiple leads to analyze the heart's rate, rhythm, and electrical axis.
The document discusses methods for determining heart rate and QRS axis from an ECG.
To determine heart rate, it describes the 300 rule where the number of large boxes between beats is divided into 300. It also describes the 10 second rule where the number of beats in 10 seconds is multiplied by 6.
To determine QRS axis, it explains using the quadrant method to qualitatively classify the axis as normal, left axis deviation, right axis deviation, or extreme based on the positivity or negativity of the QRS complex in various leads. It also describes the equiphasic lead method to semi-quantitatively estimate the axis.
This document discusses various types of arrhythmias including their mechanisms, diagnosis using electrophysiologic studies, and management. It covers topics such as AV nodal reentrant tachycardia, orthodromic reciprocating tachycardia, atrial flutter, atrial tachycardia, Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, and differentiation of arrhythmias using pacing techniques during electrophysiology studies. The role of EPS in establishing mechanisms of arrhythmias and guiding treatment is emphasized.
This document summarizes two cases of patients with accessory pathways. In the first case, the patient presented with a delta wave on their ECG indicating a right-sided accessory pathway. Mapping and ablation were successful in isolating the pathway located in the posterior septal region of the right atrium. In the second case, the patient had a normal ECG but ablation of a left-sided anterior septal pathway terminated the arrhythmia induced by pacing. Both cases demonstrate the mapping and successful ablation of concealed accessory pathways.
This document provides an overview of electrocardiography (EKG/ECG) and how to interpret EKG results. It discusses:
1) Students will learn how to perform and analyze EKG tests, including how to attach electrodes and read EKG tracings.
2) It describes the normal waves of the EKG (P, QRS, ST-T) and intervals (PR, QT).
3) Guidelines are provided for interpreting EKGs through measuring waves and intervals, analyzing rhythm and conduction, describing waveforms, and comparing to prior tests. Characteristics of normal EKGs are also outlined.
Tachyarrhythmias 2020 (for the undergraduates)salah_atta
This document provides an overview of tachyarrhythmias. It defines tachyarrhythmias as abnormal heart rhythms with a heart rate exceeding 100 beats per minute. The document classifies and describes various types of tachyarrhythmias including extrasystoles, sinus tachycardia, supraventricular tachycardias such as AV nodal reentrant tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, and ventricular tachycardias. It discusses the mechanisms, clinical presentations, diagnostic tools and management options for these arrhythmias.
Basics of Electrophysiologic study, part 1 (2020)salah_atta
An electrophysiologic study involves inserting electrode catheters into the heart to record electrical activity and induce arrhythmias. The document discusses:
1. The procedure involves placing catheters in the heart to record electrograms from the atria, His bundle, ventricles and coronary sinus.
2. The aims are diagnostic to evaluate arrhythmias and bradycardias, and therapeutic for ablation of arrhythmias.
3. Key measurements taken include intervals between P waves, His bundle activation and QRS complex to identify conduction abnormalities.
4. Tracings are analyzed to determine the rhythm, sequence of activation, effects of pacing, and identify arrhythmia mechanisms like accessory pathways
Ecg signal processing for detection and classification of cardiac diseasesIAEME Publication
This document discusses ECG signal processing for detecting and classifying cardiac diseases. It begins with an overview of heart anatomy and the cardiac conduction system. It then discusses properties of cardiac muscle cells and ECG measurements. The main types of cardiac arrhythmias and diseases that can be detected from ECG signals are outlined, including ventricular fibrillation, atrial fibrillation, premature ventricular contractions, ischemia, and myocardial infarction. Detection methods focus on time-domain analysis of ECG signals using algorithms like Pan-Tompkins to identify arrhythmias, with results verified against databases like MIT-BIH and PhysioNet.
The document provides an overview of basic ICD treatment and concepts, including the evolution of ICDs, device components, automated functions such as sensing, detection, and SVT discrimination, and troubleshooting. Key aspects of ICD systems like battery depletion, lead design, and programming are discussed at a high level.
This document describes equipment and settings used in electrophysiology (EP) studies. It lists various pieces of equipment including fluoroscopy units, recording systems, cardiac stimulators, ablation generators, 3D mapping systems, and intracardiac ultrasound units. It provides details on catheter types, positions, and settings for standard EP studies including studies of arrhythmias like supraventricular tachycardia. It also explains pacing protocols and techniques used in EP studies to evaluate conduction properties and induce arrhythmias.
This document discusses electrocardiograms (EKGs) and how they are used to analyze the electrical activity of the heart. It provides the following key points:
1. An EKG records the electrical signals produced by the heart during each beat and can be used to determine heart rate and identify any abnormalities.
2. The main components of an EKG waveform are labeled P, Q, R, S, and T and correspond to different stages of electrical conduction through the heart.
3. Doctors can examine EKG tracings to diagnose conditions like arrhythmias, heart attacks, or damage to heart muscle based on changes in waveforms and timing of intervals between components.
The document discusses electrocardiograms (EKGs) and how they are used to analyze the electrical activity of the heart. It provides the following key points:
- An EKG records the electrical events in the heart as it beats, showing the natural conduction pathways and contractions of the atria and ventricles.
- The different waves in an EKG (P, QRS, T) represent different stages of the heartbeat and electrical conduction through the heart.
- Doctors can examine an EKG to check for abnormalities that may indicate heart conditions like arrhythmias, damage to heart muscle tissue, or heart attacks.
- In this experiment, students will record their own EKG, identify
An electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG) records the electrical activity of the heart over time. The main components of a heartbeat are labeled P, Q, R, S, and T waves. The P wave represents electrical activity spreading through the atria, while the QRS complex represents ventricular activation. The T wave occurs as the ventricles recover. By examining intervals between these waves, as well as their presence, shape, and consistency, doctors can detect disorders like abnormal heart rhythms or damage to heart muscle tissue. In this experiment, students will record their own EKG, identify the wave components, and calculate their heart rate. They will also compare EKGs recorded from different electrode placements on the arms
The document discusses electrocardiograms (EKGs) and how they are used to analyze the electrical activity of the heart. It provides the following key points:
- An EKG records the electrical signals produced by the heart during each beat and can be used to detect disorders.
- The main components of a heart beat seen on an EKG are labeled P, Q, R, S, and T waves. Each component represents a different stage of the heartbeat.
- By analyzing the timing and shapes of these components, doctors can identify issues like abnormal heart rhythms, damage to heart muscle, or blockages in the heart's electrical pathways.
- The document describes procedures for students to record their
An EKG records the electrical activity of the heart over time. It shows waveforms labeled P, QRS, and T that represent different events in the heart's electrical cycle and natural conduction pathways. Abnormalities in these waveforms can indicate disorders like arrhythmias, injury, or heart attacks. In this experiment, students will record their own EKG, identify the normal waveforms and intervals, calculate their heart rate, and observe how the tracing changes when electrode positions are altered to simulate a myocardial infarction.
The document discusses electrocardiograms (EKGs) and how they are used to analyze heart function. It provides the following key points:
1. An EKG records the electrical activity of the heart and can reveal information about heart rate, rhythms, and any disorders.
2. The main components of an EKG waveform are labeled P, Q, R, S, and T and represent different stages of electrical conduction through the heart.
3. Doctors can examine EKG tracings to detect issues like abnormal heart rates, damage to heart muscle tissue, and blockages in the heart's electrical pathways.
4. The document presents sample EKG tracings and has the reader analyze
An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) records the electrical activity of the heart over time through electrodes placed on the skin. It shows five main components - P wave, QRS complex, and T wave - that represent the spread of electrical impulses through the heart during each heartbeat. Doctors can analyze features of the EKG like interval durations and waveform shapes to detect abnormalities and disorders of the heart's rhythm or muscle tissue. In this experiment, students will record their own EKG, identify the components, calculate heart rate, and observe how the tracing changes when the electrode leads are switched to simulate a myocardial infarction.
Electrocardiography: is the recording of the electrical impulses that are generated in the heart. These impulses initiate the contraction of cardiac muscles.
The document provides an overview of electrocardiography (ECG) including its uses, the electrical conduction system of the heart, how to record an ECG, the components of a normal ECG, how to report and analyze an ECG, and examples of normal and abnormal ECG tracings. The objectives are to introduce ECG, discuss its uses in diagnosing cardiac conditions, describe the electrical conduction system and how this is reflected in the ECG, and provide guidance on recording, interpreting, and reporting ECG findings.
The document defines ECG interpretation and provides details on obtaining an ECG, interpreting the waves and intervals, and determining heart rate and rhythm. An ECG records electrical activity in the heart over multiple beats and is interpreted by healthcare professionals. Key aspects covered include placing electrodes to obtain 12-lead ECGs, defining the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave, and intervals like PR and QT. Methods for calculating heart rate from the RR interval and determining regularity of rhythm are also outlined.
An electrocardiogram (ECG) records the electrical activity of the heart. Small metal electrodes are attached to the skin on the arms, legs, and chest to detect electrical impulses from the heart. The ECG machine amplifies and records these impulses, showing normal and abnormal heart rhythms and any signs of heart damage or disease. A normal ECG tracing shows the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave representing atrial and ventricular contractions and repolarizations. The ECG test takes about five minutes and is painless.
This document provides an overview of electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) interpretation presented by Ms. Hari Singh Nagar. It defines ECG as a test that records the heart's electrical activity over time using electrodes placed on the skin. The summary explains how to obtain an ECG by attaching electrodes, and how to interpret the waves, complexes, intervals and segments of an ECG strip including P wave, QRS complex, T wave, and others. It also describes how to determine the heart rate and rhythm from the ECG by measuring intervals between waves.
This document provides an overview of basic electrocardiography including:
- The objectives of interpreting an EKG
- General principles such as depolarization, repolarization and the cardiac conduction system
- Definitions of key aspects of an EKG such as waves, intervals, leads and normal values
- How to estimate heart rate from an EKG
- Examples of normal sinus rhythm and common rhythm disturbances
This document provides information about electrocardiography (ECG) including its history, components, interpretation, and procedure. It discusses that ECG was invented in 1901 by Enthovan to record electrical impulses of the heart. It describes the normal conduction system, waves (P, Q, R, S, T), segments, intervals of ECG and placement of 12 leads. The document outlines the procedure for performing an ECG including preparing the patient, connecting the leads, and interpreting the results. It emphasizes the importance of properly performing and interpreting ECG to assess cardiac function and diagnose cardiac conditions.
The document discusses electrocardiography (ECG), providing details on the standard 12-lead ECG procedure, what each lead measures, and ECG paper formatting. Common cardiac arrhythmias and conduction abnormalities that can be detected from the ECG are summarized, including sinus bradycardia, atrial flutter, atrial fibrillation, ventricular tachycardia, and Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Characteristics of right and left bundle branch block are also outlined.
The document provides an overview of interpreting electrocardiograms (ECGs). It discusses the coronary circulation and electrical conduction system of the heart. It then covers the key elements of an ECG including the waveform and intervals in a normal reading. The document outlines how to interpret an ECG to identify lethal cardiac diseases by examining features such as the rate, rhythm, P waves, PR interval, and QRS complex. It provides guidance on evaluating the ECG for conditions like myocardial infarction by looking at changes in the ST segment across different electrode positions.
Let's imagine a toy house of a child with lots of window. If you try to look inside the house from different windows every time you will see the different perspective of inside, but the house remains same. Likewise, in a heart, electrical stimulus is same, but it is captured by leads as cameras through different positions.
This document provides information from a student-led tutorial on interpreting electrocardiograms (ECGs). It defines the ECG waveform and relates it to electrical activity in the heart. It discusses normal ranges for intervals like PR, QRS, and QT. Examples of rhythms like sinus arrhythmia, heart block, and atrial fibrillation are presented. Appendices provide guidance on calculating heart rate from ECG tracings and identifying rhythm based on regularity of QRS complexes. Causes and clinical features of different types of heart block are also summarized.
The document provides an overview of electrocardiography (ECG/EKG) including:
1. ECG records the electrical activity of the heart over time using skin electrodes and provides information on heart rate, rhythm, tissue activation, and damage.
2. Key aspects of the ECG waveform include the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave which represent atrial depolarization, ventricular depolarization, and ventricular repolarization, respectively.
3. The standard 12-lead ECG consists of 3 bipolar limb leads, 3 augmented unipolar limb leads, and 6 precordial leads which provide different views of the heart's electrical activity.
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga-GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS-2024.pdfOsvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
Gastrointestinal Infections
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS result from the ingestion of pathogens that cause infections at the level of this tract, generally being transmitted by food, water and hands contaminated by microorganisms such as E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter, Staphylococcus, Rotavirus among others that are generally contained in feces, thus configuring a FECAL-ORAL type of transmission.
Among the factors that lead to the occurrence of gastrointestinal infections are the hygienic and sanitary deficiencies that characterize our markets and other places where raw or cooked food is sold, poor environmental sanitation in communities, deficiencies in water treatment (or in the process of its plumbing), risky hygienic-sanitary habits (not washing hands after major and/or minor needs), among others.
These are generally consequences (signs and symptoms) resulting from gastrointestinal infections: diarrhea, vomiting, fever and malaise, among others.
The treatment consists of replacing lost liquids and electrolytes (drinking drinking water and other recommended liquids, including consumption of juicy fruits such as papayas, apples, pears, among others that contain water in their composition).
To prevent this, it is necessary to promote health education, improve the hygienic-sanitary conditions of markets and communities in general as a way of promoting, preserving and prolonging PUBLIC HEALTH.
Gastritis and Gastric Health
Gastric Health is one of the most relevant concerns in human health, with gastrointestinal infections being among the main illnesses that affect humans.
Among gastric problems, we have GASTRITIS AND GASTRIC ULCERS as the main public health problems. Gastritis and gastric ulcers normally result from inflammation and corrosion of the walls of the stomach (gastric mucosa) and are generally associated (caused) by the bacterium Helicobacter pylor, which, according to the literature, this bacterium settles on these walls (of the stomach) and starts to release urease that ends up altering the normal pH of the stomach (acid), which leads to inflammation and corrosion of the mucous membranes and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
In addition to bacterial infections, gastritis and gastric ulcers are associated with several factors, with emphasis on prolonged fasting, chemical substances including drugs, alcohol, foods with strong seasonings including chilli, which ends up causing inflammation of the stomach walls and/or corrosion. of the same, resulting in the appearance of wounds and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
Among patients with gastritis and/or ulcers, one of the dilemmas is associated with the foods to consume in order to minimize the sensation of pain and discomfort.
Summer is a time for fun in the sun, but the heat and humidity can also wreak havoc on your skin. From itchy rashes to unwanted pigmentation, several skin conditions become more prevalent during these warmer months.
Nano-gold for Cancer Therapy chemistry investigatory projectSIVAVINAYAKPK
chemistry investigatory project
The development of nanogold-based cancer therapy could revolutionize oncology by providing a more targeted, less invasive treatment option. This project contributes to the growing body of research aimed at harnessing nanotechnology for medical applications, paving the way for future clinical trials and potential commercial applications.
Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide, prompting the need for innovative treatment methods. Nanotechnology offers promising new approaches, including the use of gold nanoparticles (nanogold) for targeted cancer therapy. Nanogold particles possess unique physical and chemical properties that make them suitable for drug delivery, imaging, and photothermal therapy.
Are you looking for a long-lasting solution to your missing tooth?
Dental implants are the most common type of method for replacing the missing tooth. Unlike dentures or bridges, implants are surgically placed in the jawbone. In layman’s terms, a dental implant is similar to the natural root of the tooth. It offers a stable foundation for the artificial tooth giving it the look, feel, and function similar to the natural tooth.
The biomechanics of running involves the study of the mechanical principles underlying running movements. It includes the analysis of the running gait cycle, which consists of the stance phase (foot contact to push-off) and the swing phase (foot lift-off to next contact). Key aspects include kinematics (joint angles and movements, stride length and frequency) and kinetics (forces involved in running, including ground reaction and muscle forces). Understanding these factors helps in improving running performance, optimizing technique, and preventing injuries.
Breast cancer: Post menopausal endocrine therapyDr. Sumit KUMAR
Breast cancer in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive (HR+) status is a common and complex condition that necessitates a multifaceted approach to management. HR+ breast cancer means that the cancer cells grow in response to hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. This subtype is prevalent among postmenopausal women and typically exhibits a more indolent course compared to other forms of breast cancer, which allows for a variety of treatment options.
Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is generally reserved for patients with high-risk features, such as large tumor size, high-grade histology, or extensive lymph node involvement. Regimens often include anthracyclines and taxanes.
PGx Analysis in VarSeq: A User’s PerspectiveGolden Helix
Since our release of the PGx capabilities in VarSeq, we’ve had a few months to gather some insights from various use cases. Some users approach PGx workflows by means of array genotyping or what seems to be a growing trend of adding the star allele calling to the existing NGS pipeline for whole genome data. Luckily, both approaches are supported with the VarSeq software platform. The genotyping method being used will also dictate what the scope of the tertiary analysis will be. For example, are your PGx reports a standalone pipeline or would your lab’s goal be to handle a dual-purpose workflow and report on PGx + Diagnostic findings.
The purpose of this webcast is to:
Discuss and demonstrate the approaches with array and NGS genotyping methods for star allele calling to prep for downstream analysis.
Following genotyping, explore alternative tertiary workflow concepts in VarSeq to handle PGx reporting.
Moreover, we will include insights users will need to consider when validating their PGx workflow for all possible star alleles and options you have for automating your PGx analysis for large number of samples. Please join us for a session dedicated to the application of star allele genotyping and subsequent PGx workflows in our VarSeq software.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/Pt1nA32sdHQ
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/uFdc9F0rlP0
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Debunking Nutrition Myths: Separating Fact from Fiction"AlexandraDiaz101
In a world overflowing with diet trends and conflicting nutrition advice, it’s easy to get lost in misinformation. This article cuts through the noise to debunk common nutrition myths that may be sabotaging your health goals. From the truth about carbohydrates and fats to the real effects of sugar and artificial sweeteners, we break down what science actually says. Equip yourself with knowledge to make informed decisions about your diet, and learn how to navigate the complexities of modern nutrition with confidence. Say goodbye to food confusion and hello to a healthier you!
1. Computer
Analyzing the Heart with EKG 12
An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a graphical recording of the electrical events occurring
within the heart. In a healthy heart there is a natural pacemaker in the right atrium (the sinoatrial
node) which initiates an electrical sequence. This impulse then passes down natural conduction
pathways between the atria to the atrioventricular node and from there to both ventricles. The
natural conduction pathways facilitate orderly spread of the impulse and coordinated contraction
of first the atria and then the ventricles. The electrical journey creates unique deflections in the
EKG that tell a story about heart function and health (Figure 1). Even more information is
obtained by looking at the story from different angles, which is accomplished by placing
electrodes in various positions on the chest and extremities. A positive deflection in an EKG
tracing represents electrical activity moving toward the active lead (the green lead in this
experiment).
Five components of a single beat are
traditionally recognized and labeled P, Q, R,
S, and T. The P wave represents the start of
the electrical journey as the impulse spreads
from the sinoatrial node downward from the
atria through the atrioventricular node and to
the ventricles. Ventricular activation is
represented by the QRS complex. The T wave
results from ventricular repolarization, which
is a recovery of the ventricular muscle tissue
to its resting state. By looking at several beats
you can also calculate the rate for each
component.
Doctors and other trained personnel can look
at an EKG tracing and see evidence for
disorders of the heart such as abnormal
slowing, speeding, irregular rhythms, injury to
muscle tissue (angina), and death of muscle
tissue (myocardial infarction). The length of
an interval indicates whether an impulse is Figure 1
following its normal pathway. A long interval
reveals that an impulse has been slowed or has taken a longer route. A short interval reflects an
impulse which followed a shorter route. If a complex is absent, the electrical impulse did not rise
normally, or was blocked at that part of the heart. Lack of normal depolarization of the atria
leads to an absent P wave. An absent QRS complex after a normal P wave indicates the electrical
impulse was blocked before it reached the ventricles. Abnormally shaped complexes result from
abnormal spread of the impulse through the muscle tissue, such as in myocardial infarction
where the impulse cannot follow its normal pathway because of tissue death or injury. Electrical
patterns may also be changed by metabolic abnormalities and by various medicines.
In this experiment, you will use the EKG sensor to make a five second graphical recording of
your heart’s electrical activity, and then switch the red and green leads to simulate the change in
electrical activity that can occur with a myocardial infarction (heart attack). You will identify the
different components of the waveforms and use them to determine your heart rate. You will also
determine the direction of electrical activity for the QRS complex.
Human Physiology with Vernier 12 - 1
2. Analyzing the Heart with EKG
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment, you will
Obtain graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart over a period of time.
Learn to recognize the different wave forms seen in an EKG, and associate these wave
forms with activity of the heart.
Determine the heart rate by determining the rate of individual wave forms in the EKG.
Compare wave forms generated by alternate EKG lead placements.
MATERIALS
computer Vernier EKG Sensor
Vernier computer interface electrode tabs
Logger Pro
PROCEDURE
Part I Standard limb lead EKG
1. Connect the EKG Sensor to the Vernier computer interface. Open the file “12 Analyzing
Heart EKG” from the Human Physiology with
Vernierfolder.
2. Attach three electrode tabs to your arms, as shown in
Figure 2. Place a single patch on the inside of the
right wrist, on the inside of the right upper forearm
(distal to the elbow), and on the inside of the left
upper forearm (distal to elbow).
3. Connect the EKG clips to the electrode tabs as
shown in Figure 2. Sit in a relaxed position in a
chair, with your forearms resting on your legs or on
the arms of the chair. When you are properly
positioned, have someone click to begin data
collection.
4. Once data collection is finished, click and drag to
highlight each interval listed in Table 1. Use Figure
3 as your guide when determining these intervals.
Enter the x value of each highlighted area to the
nearest 0.01 s in Table 1. This value can be found in
the lower left corner of the graph. Figure 2
5. Calculate the heart rate in beats/min using the EKG data. Record the heart rate to the nearest
whole number in Table 1.
6. Store this run by choosing Store Latest Run from the Experiment menu.
Part II Alternate limb lead EKG
7. Exchange the red and green EKG clips so that the green clip is now attached to the electrode
tab on the left arm and the red clip is on the right arm. Sit in a relaxed position in a chair,
with your forearms resting on your legs or on the arms of the chair. When you are properly
positioned, have someone click to begin data collection.
Human Physiology with Vernier 12 - 2
3. Analyzing the Heart with EKG
8. Print or sketch the tracing for alternate limb lead placement only.
Figure 3
P-R interval: time from the beginning of P wave to the start of the QRS complex
QRS complex: time from Q deflection to S deflection
Q-T interval: time from Q deflection to the end of the T
DATA
Table 1
Interval Time (s)
P–R 0.114
QRS 0.102
Q–T 0.383
R–R 0.748
Heart Rate (bpm) 44.88
Table 2
Standard Resting Electrocardiogram Interval Times
P–R interval 0.12 to 0.20 s
QRS interval less than 0.12 s
Q–T interval 0.30 to 0.40 s
Human Physiology with Vernier 12 - 3
4. Analyzing the Heart with EKG
DATA ANALYSIS
1. Remember that a positive deflection indicates electrical activity moving toward the green
EKG lead. Examine the two major deflections of a single QRS complex (R wave and S
wave) in your EKG tracing from Part I of this experiment. According to this data, does
ventricular depolarization proceed from right to left or left to right? How does your
tracing from Part II confirm your answer?
The ventricular depolarization proceeds from left to right. Tracing Part II goes from T, S,
R,Q,P instead of P,Q,R,S,T.
2. Health-care professionals ask the following questions when interpreting an EKG:
Can all components be identified in each beat?
Are the intervals between each component and each complex consistent?
Are there clear abnormalities of any of the wave components?
Using these questions as guides, analyze each of the following three-beat EKG tracings and
record your conclusions in Table 3 (indicate presence or absence of the P wave, and whether
other intervals and/or shapes are normal or abnormal). The first analysis (a) is done for you.
a. b.
c. d.
Human Physiology with Vernier 12 - 4
5. Analyzing the Heart with EKG
e. f.
g. h.
Table 3
QRS
P Wave PR Interval QRS Interval T Wave Shape
Shape
ECG Beat Pres. Abs. Nml. Abs./Abn. Nml. Abs./Abn. Nml. Abn. Nml. Abs./Abn.
1 X X X X X
a 2 X X X X X
3 X X X X X
1 X X X X X
b 2 X X X X X
3 X X X X X
1 X X X X X
c 2 X X X X X
3 X X X X X
1 X X X X X
d 2 X X X X X
3 X X X X X
1 x x x x x
e 2 x x x x x
3 x x x x x
1 x x x x x
f 2 x x x x x
3 x x x x x
Human Physiology with Vernier 12 - 5
6. Analyzing the Heart with EKG
1 x x x x x
G 2 x x x x x
3 x x x x x
1 x x x x x
H 2 x x x x x
3 x x x x x
Human Physiology with Vernier 12 - 6