Egypt: Intro

3200-3000 BCE 2600 BCE 2218 BCE 1750 BCE 645-635 BCE
3000-2920 BCE 2552-2528 BCE 2950-2135 BCE 1323 BCE
Ancient Egypt developed roughly parallel with ancient Mesopotamia

But the regions were vastly different geographically

Mesopotamia was surrounded by desert and mountains

The Tigris and Euphrates rivers provided water for crops, but they required intensive
systems of irrigation

The rivers were also highly unpredictable, subject to floods and droughts (in fact the
Biblical story of the Great Flood originates in Mesopotamia)

Egypt was very different geographically

The Nile River was very predictable, and its annual flooding (innundation) brought rich
silt that made the land suitable for farming

The Greek historian Herodotus called Egypt the “gift of the Nile” since the kingdom owed
its survival to the river – without it, Egypt would be nothing but desert

Egypt also enjoyed natural defenses, which enabled it to prosper for thousands of years

The two regions there developed very differently
Mesopotamia:
Unstable society, subject to
constant warfare and
competition for resources
Egypt:
Stable society;
maintained a culture
that saw little change
for 3,000 years

During the Neolithic period, settlements began to develop along
the fertile banks of the Nile River
Decorated jar, Predynastic/Late Naqada II
c. 3500-3300 BCE
Metropolitan Museum
Figurine of a Man
c. 3650-3450BCE
Metropolitan Museum

During the pre-Dynastic period these settlements developed into
the rival kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt
Lower Egypt
Upper Egypt

The Nile flows North, so to the Egyptians Southern Egypt was “up”
and Northern Egypt was “down”
Lower Egypt
= North
Upper Egypt
=South

The rival kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt were symbolized by
different crowns
Lower Egypt
Upper Egypt

The crown of Lower
Egypt was the
Deshret crown: a
red crown with a
coiled cobra
emerging from it
Lower Egypt
Upper Egypt
The crown of Upper
Egypt was the Hedjet
crown: a white
crown with a bowling
pin shape

According to written records, King Menes was the first king to unify
Upper and Lower Egypt, marking the beginning of the Dynastic
period
Unified Egypt

At this time, the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt were combined
to form the Double Crown of unified Egypt
Unified Egypt

Egyptian Chronology
PRE-DYNASTIC/EARLY
DYNASTIC PERIODc.
3500-2575 BCE
OLD KINGDOM
c. 2649 – 2150 BCE
MIDDLE KINGDOM
c. 2030-1640 BCE
NEW KINGDOM
c. 15501070 BCE
Egyptian history is divided into four main periods: Pre-Dynastic and Early Dynastic, Old
Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom — separated by Intermediate periods
when centralized government broke down
First Intermediate
Period
Second
Intermediate
Period

Egyptian Chronology
PRE-DYNASTIC/EARLY
DYNASTIC PERIODc.
3500-2575 BCE
OLD KINGDOM
c. 2649 – 2150 BCE
MIDDLE KINGDOM
c. 2030-1640 BCE
NEW KINGDOM
c. 15501070 BCE
These periods are also divided into dynasties, referring to dynasties of kings that
descended from the same family
First Intermediate
Period
Second
Intermediate
Period

Stele of Minnakht, Louvre
Image source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Egypte_louvre_144_hieroglyphes.jpg
The Egyptians developed a system of writing called hieroglyphics

It is a phonetic language in which images stand for things, or sounds — depending on
the context

The Rosetta Stone, Egypt, Ptolemaic Period, 196 BCE
British Museum
Hieroglyphs remained indecipherable until the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799

It had three columns with the same text written in hieroglyphs, Demotic (a later form
of the Egyptian language), and Greek

This enabled the French lexicographer Jean-François Champillon to “crack the code”
and decipher the strange symbols that had eluded scholars for centuries

The Egyptians worshipped a pantheon of gods, who controlled all aspects of the
universe

The gods were represented as humans with animal heads, or animal attributes

The Egyptian creation myth explains how the world was created out of the primeval
waters of Nun, and includes a story about the rivalry between Osiris, the good ruler of
Upper Egypt, and Seth, the jealous brother and ruler of Lower Egypt
Seth
God of storms, desert,
evil, chaos, war
Osiris
God of the afterlife,
death, life, resurrection

Seth killed his brother and threw his dismembered body into the Nile, but Isis (Osiris’
wife and sister) gathered up the pieces and restored him to life
Seth
evil, chaos, war
Osiris
Isis
Goddess of health,
marriage wisdom

Seth
evil, chaos, war
Osiris
Isis
Goddess of health,
marriage wisdom
Horus
God of the sky and
kingship
Isis and Osiris bore a son named Horus, who became the ruler of the world, while Osiris
became the ruler of the dead

These gods are recognizable by their attributes
Horus
God of the sky and
kingship: falcon head,
and double crown of
unified Egypt
Osiris
death, life, resurrection:
green skin, plumed
crown, carries a crook
and flail, and legs bound
together like a mummy
Isis
Goddess of health,
marriage wisdom: wears
a throne on her head

Osiris
death, life, resurrection:
green skin, plumed
crown, carries a crook
and flail, and legs bound
together like a mummy
Isis
Goddess of health,
marriage wisdom: wears
a throne on her head
Ra-Horakhty
God of the sun; head of a
falcon (Horus), and a sun
disc enclosed by a cobra
on his head
Horus
God of the sky and
kingship: falcon head,
and double crown of
unified Egypt
Later Horus merged with the sun god Ra to become Ra-Horakhty (“Ra, who is Horus of
the two horizons”); he has the head of a falcon like Horus, but he wears the sun disc on
his head, enclosed by a cobra

Osiris
Isis
Goddess of health,
marriage wisdom
Ra-Horakhty
God of the sun; head of a
falcon (Horus), and a sun
disc enclosed by a falcon
on his head
To the Egyptians, the death of Osiris and his rebirth as Horus/Ra-Horakhty represented
the unchanging order of the universe:

“For the Egyptians, creation was reenacted yearly as the inundation of the Nile receded
and the land was renewed, bringing forth lush vegetation and a good harvest. They
interpreted this annual event as a renewal of life and a triumph over death. They saw the
same cosmic drama embodied in the daily cycle of the sun, which was born in the east
and died in the west only to be reborn the next day. They also saw it in the human cycle
of birth, death, and rebirth in the afterlife.”
Edith W. Watts, “Ancient Egypt: A Resource for Educators,” Metropolitan Museum of Art,
p. 20

The Osirin myth also explains the source of kingship in ancient Egypt

The Egyptians believed that the Pharaoh was the living embodiment of Horus, and when
he died he became Osiris

The Pharaoh was therefore believed to be a living god, and the cycle of death and
resurrection embodied in the Osirin myth echoed the cycles of the sun and the moon,
the changing seasons, and the ebb and flow of the Nile river

The Pharaoh’s immortality therefore embodied the unchanging cycles of nature, and
guaranteed the stability and prosperity of the kingdom

Thanks for listening!
Next up: the Palette of Narmer

Palette of Narmer, c. 3,000-2950 BCE
Egyptian Museum, Cairo
Roughly contemporary with The Stele of Naramsin, The Palette of Narmer dates to
about 3,000 BCE, and is one of the first time an Egyptian king is represented in art
Victory Stele of Naramsin,
c. 2254-2218, sandstone. Louvre

Decorated on both sides, the object was a ceremonial palette used for mixing eye paint
The circular recess
was used for mixing
eye paint

Egyptian queen Hatshepsut is depicted on a painted limestone statue in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Photograph by Kenneth Garrett, National Geographic
Image source: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/01/100114-cleopatra-eye-makeup-ancient-egyptians/
The Egyptians used eye paint for cosmetic purposes, but also to protect their eyes
against the glare of the desert sun, and to prevent infection

Two Dogs Palette, Hierakonpolis, Egypt c.3100 B.C.E.
(Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford)
Numerous ceremonial palettes have been found, but the Narmer Palette is distinctive for
its complex iconography of Egyptian kingship

The palette is associated with King Narmer because his name is carved in a serekh at
the top of both sides

A serekh is a pictographic image of a palace that contains the kings name written inside
(the word “pharaoh” actually means “great house”)

Narmer is believed to be the same person as the legendary king Menes, who was the
first to unify Upper and Lower Egypt, and the palette’s decorations seem to focus on the
theme of unification

Palette of Narmer, c.
3,000-2950 BCE
The back of the palette depicts king Narmer smiting an enemy with a mace

Relief at Medinet Habu, Ramesses III smiting his enemies in the battle
against the sea peoples. Egypt. Ancient Egyptian. 20th dynasty c 1186
1070 BC. Medinet Habu.
This “smiting-pose” became a standard convention in the representation of Egyptian
rulers for centuries to come

Rather than representing an “actual battle,” it is more like a symbol
connoting the kings’ conquest of his enemy

The king’s status is indicated by the use of hierarchic scale, and his
idealized muscular appearance – but his costume also indicates his
importance

He wears the bowling pin shaped crown of Upper Egypt, and a
false beard – attributes of kingship in Egypt

He also wears the shendyt skirt with bull’s tail, probably connoting
his “bull-like” strength

The defeated enemy also wears a
beard, but he wears a loincloth
rather than the shendyt skirt

Though smaller in size, if he stood
up he would be as tall as Narmer
– suggesting that he could be the
enemy king

Two figures on the lower register probably signify the enemy dead

Behind Narmer (and represented in
smaller scale) a servant carries a
jar and a pair of sandals

The king is also clearly barefoot,
perhaps symbolizing that he is
carrying out a sacred act

To the right of Narmer is a strange symbol: a Falcon perched atop
a clump of Papyrus, and clutching a leash attached to a man’s
head

The falcon is a reference to the god Horus, who was identified with
Egyptian kingship, and papyrus was a common symbol for Lower
Egypt

So the pictograph symbolized the idea that Narmer, as the Living
Horus, has conquered Lower Egypt – the “land of the papyrus”

Divine approval of Narmer’s deed is further emphasized on top,
with two images of the cow goddess (Bat or Hathor), flanking his
serekh

The other side of the palette includes the kings name, and the
image of the cow goddess

On the next register, king Narmer particiaptes in a procession, as
he inspects the battlefield in the aftermath of the battle

Having conquered lower Egypt, the king now wears the red Deshret crown

The figures in front of him are represented in descending scale according to importance,
and they carry standards representing the different nomes (provinces) of Egypt

To the right, the enemy dead are piled vertically rather than in perspective; they have
been castrated and decapitated, their heads placed between their legs

The center register shows two fantastic creatures whose necks are
intertwined to form a reservoir for mixing eye-paint

The intertwined necks probably symbolize the theme of “unification”
– having conquered Lower Egypt, Narmer has unified all of Egypt
into a single kingdom

On the bottom register, Narmer’s conquest is represented by the
image of a bull toppling the walls of a fortified city

3,000-2950 BCE
There are many similarities between the Palette of Narmer and the Stele of Naramsin

3,000-2950 BCE
Both show powerful rulers, whose importance is indicated by size, costume and
attributes – not to mention their idealized muscular bodies, and powerful stance

3,000-2950 BCE
Both also emphasize the king’s close connection to the gods

3,000-2950 BCE
But a major difference is how the story is told

3,000-2950 BCE
The Stele of Naramsin is like an action packed drama, as if the battle is happening right
in front of our eyes

3,000-2950 BCE
The Palette of Narmer on the other hand has none of this sense of the momentary

3,000-2950 BCE
The figures are more symbolic than real, and seem to be frozen in time, as if to suggest
a timeless order, rather than an actual event

3,000-2950 BCE
As we will see, this timeless quality was a distinguishing feature of Egyptian art, and was
intimately connected to Egyptian beliefs about the afterlife – which they believed to be
an unchanging continuation of the present; as if time really did stand still – and for an
eternity!

Next up: The Egyptian Canon of Proportions

The Egyptian Canon of Proportions

Image source: https://jenwoo.wordpress.com/2009/01/10/walk-like-an-egyptian-2/
What does it mean to “walk like an Egyptian”?

Image source: https://jenwoo.wordpress.com/2009/01/10/walk-like-an-egyptian-2/
Everybody seems to know how to do it: make your body stiff, position your legs in a
forward striding motion, with both feet directly in line; then twist your torso forward, while
turning your head to the side. Be careful not to fall over!

Everybody knows how to “walk like an Egyptian” because we’ve all seen Egyptian
images -- and they all look like pretty much alike
Offering Bearers, relief from Mastaba of Nofret and Rahotep, c. 2570-2545 BCE

Wall Fragment from the Tomb of Amenemhet and His Wife Hemet, Middle Kingdom, Dynasty 12 (1991-1784 B.C.)
Art Institute of Chicago
This is because Egyptian artists used a standard formula for representing the
human figure that varied very little for over one thousand years

Stele of Zezen-nakht, 2000 BCE
Toledo Museum of Art
Let’s start with the composite pose

When the Egyptians represented the human body they did not depict it the way it
appears to the eye

Instead, they represented the figure in a combination (or a “composite”) of multiple
perspectives at once

The legs and hips are shown from the side, but the shoulders are twisted frontally,
rather than being shown in true perspective

While the head is seen from the side, the eyes are shown straight on – and while
the shoulders are twisted frontally, the breast is actually represented from the side

Relief from the Tomb of Kahai, c. 2649-2150 BCE
Image source: http://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/pyramid-age-love-story-comes-life-egyptian-tombs-vivid-color-f2D11603592
This is much easier to see in images of women

The composite pose is similar to the use of “twisted perspective in Paleolithic art

It ensured that the image was conceptually complete and that no essential parts
were missing

To the Egyptians, the striding man on the right would appear “incomplete” because
part of his arm is “missing”

The striding man on the left is more conceptually complete, because all of the
essential features of the body can be seen clearly

Stela of Mentuwoser, c. 1944 BCE
Metropolitan Museum
This conceptual approach also applied to the rendering of depth and perspective

Metropolitan Museum
This painted relief depicts an official named Mentuwoser seated at a banquet table

Metropolitan Museum
The table is laden with food: we can see meats, bread, and vegetables

Metropolitan Museum
If this table was seen in perspective, the objects would be seen behind one
another, and we wouldn’t be able to see some of the items because they would be
blocked by the objects in front of them

Metropolitan Museum
So the artist used vertical perspective – stacking the items up vertically – so we
would have a complete view of all the items on the table

Another reason why all Egyptian images look pretty much alike is that the
Egyptians used a standard formula called the Egyptian Canon of Proportions
Offering Bearers, relief from Mastaba of Nofret and Rahotep, c. 2570-2545 BCE

The Canon of Proportions was essentially a grid, that was used for plotting out the
figure following a standard formula

Here’s how it works: The Egyptian artist would begin by plotting the figure out on
the grid, using a pre-determined set of measurements

Key anchor points of the figure
would be set in place, starting with
18 squares from the top of the
head to the feet (the hair will rise
above the top square)

Count 2 squares down for the
base of the neck, and 3 square
either way for the shoulders
Count 2 squares over from the left
shoulder, and 5 squares down for
the belly button

Keep plotting out the anchor
points, and eventually drawing the
figure becomes simply a matter of
connecting the dots

Egypt was a highly stratified
society, and the formulas used
in art helped to visually
differentiate between social
strata

Relief from the Tomb of Kahai, c. 2649-2150 BCE
Image source: http://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/pyramid-age-love-story-comes-life-egyptian-tombs-vivid-color-f2D11603592
Men and women, for example, were differentiated by the color of their skin

Wall Fragment from the Tomb of Amenemhet and His Wife Hemet, Middle Kingdom, Dynasty 12 (1991-1784 B.C.)
Art Institute of Chicago
Men had darker red skin, and women had lighter skin

Relief of Nofer, 2540–2465 BCE. Museum of Fine Arts Boston
Hierarchic scale was also used to differentiate social status

Relief of Nofer, 2540–2465 BCE. Museum of Fine Arts Boston
More important people were
larger in scale, and less
important people were smaller

Ti Hippopotamus Hunting, painted relief from the tomb of Ti, Saqqara, Dynasty V,
Old Kingdom, c. 245-2350 BCE
Social status was also differentiated by degrees of naturalism

Ti Hippopotamus Hunting, painted relief from the tomb of Ti, Saqqara, Dynasty V,
Old Kingdom, c. 245-2350 BCE
This can be illustrated by this painted relief depicting an important official named
Ti, hunting hippopotamus with his servants

We can tell that Ti is the most important person in the scene because he is larger
than everyone else, and because he is shown in the conventional composite pose

But his servants are rendered very differently; not only are they smaller in scale,
they are also shown in active poses

In fact, lower class people are often depicted with great naturalism in Egyptian art

Fishermen, from the Mastaba of Kaemni, Saqqara
Image source: http://picssr.com/tags/kagemni/page2
Shoulders are seen in true perspective, rather than twisted frontally

Cow Milking, from the Mastaba of Kaemni, Saqqara
Image source: http://picssr.com/tags/kagemni/page2
And we see a variety of active poses that contrast with the frozen, immobile pose that
was characteristic of the Egyptian canon

Why did Egyptian artists choose to depict important people in such a stiff and
formulaic manner?

Stela of the Gatekeeper Maati, c. 2051-2030 BCE
Metropolitan Museum
As we will see, much of the art that was made in Egypt was made for people’s
tombs

Stele of Meny, c. 2100 BCE
Museum of Fine Arts Boston
The stiff and immobile figures usually represent the deceased tomb owner

The purpose of the images was to remove the individual from reality
so that they can exist in a suspended state of timelessness in which they remain
eternally young for eternity

Next up: Egyptian Royal Tombs

Egypt: Intro

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Egypt: Intro