Ancient Egypt 1 The Civilization of the Nile River Valley: Egypt Geography – Isolated by deserts on both sides. The Nile’s periodic flooding made civilized life possible in Egypt. During drought or famine, Egypt was the place to go because Egypt always has water (cf. the story of Joseph and his brothers in Genesis). The kingdom was divided into two parts: Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt (Upper Egypt is in the south), with Lower Egypt being a bit more cosmopolitan than Upper Egypt. Unlike Mesopotamia, stone was plentiful. 2 Pre-Dynastic Egypt: There is some evidence that very early on (3400-3200 BC), Egypt was influenced by Mesopotamia (corresponds to Jemnet Nasr period at Uruk). The evidence includes: the use of rectangular sun-dried mud-brick in building, the use of cylinder seals only during this time (Egypt usually used stamp-seals before and after this period), pictographic writing (the “idea” comes from Mesopotamia), the idea of kingship, social stratification and specialization, certain kinds of painted pottery, and pictures of twisted animals and battling with animals. This contact may explain Egypt’s sudden explosion into a complex, advanced civilization with writing. The use of mud-brick is peculiar, noting the abundance of stone. There is evidence, however, that the development begins in Upper Egypt (i.e., the south). Two distinct cultures, the Upper, with social stratification and royal artistic expression, etc., and the Lower, with contacts in Palestine, etc. Egypt seems to go from the Neolithic to a complex civilization overnight. Linear development is not apparent. Agriculture appears to be introduced from outside. The Pharaoh (the king) is somehow responsible for the yearly success of the Nile. His throne was Isis, the wife of Osiris and the mother of Horus. The king is identified with Horus. Egypt seeks to portray changeless continuity over thousands of years. This is somewhat true, but not entirely accurate. Ancient Egypt went through a few periods of relative chaos or lack of centralized power. Egypt, however, as is well known, chose not to usually record such periods for posterity. 4 Map of Egypt 5 Egyptian history begins with King Narmer Narmer united Upper and Lower Egypt He is likely the same person as Menes Mizraim is often the Hebrew name for Egypt The combination of the two crowns appears. This is the beginning of the First Dynasty, and of Egyptian history He established his capital at the new city of Memphis (= neutral ground) It was a new city, said to have arisen out of the ground when Narmer diverted the Nile. The royal burial grounds of Saqqara and Giza are located nearby. The uniting of Egypt is commemorated on the Palette of King Narmer (fig. 2.3) Egyptian artistic canon for relief figures is manifested: head and feet in profile, with one foot forward, but eye and shoulders shown frontally (cf. fig. 2.2) This is the beginning of Egypt’s Bronze Age It is also the beginning of Egy.

1. Ancient Egypt
1
The Civilization of the Nile River Valley: Egypt
Geography – Isolated by deserts on both sides.
The Nile’s periodic flooding made civilized life possible in
Egypt. During drought or famine, Egypt was the place to go
because Egypt always has water (cf. the story of Joseph and his
brothers in Genesis).
The kingdom was divided into two parts: Lower Egypt and
Upper Egypt (Upper Egypt is in the south), with Lower Egypt
being a bit more cosmopolitan than Upper Egypt.
Unlike Mesopotamia, stone was plentiful.
2
Pre-Dynastic Egypt: There is some evidence that very early on
(3400-3200 BC), Egypt was influenced by Mesopotamia
(corresponds to Jemnet Nasr period at Uruk). The evidence
includes:
the use of rectangular sun-dried mud-brick in building,
the use of cylinder seals only during this time (Egypt usually
used stamp-seals before and after this period),
pictographic writing (the “idea” comes from Mesopotamia),

2. the idea of kingship, social stratification and specialization,
certain kinds of painted pottery,
and pictures of twisted animals and battling with animals.
This contact may explain Egypt’s sudden explosion into a
complex, advanced civilization with writing. The use of mud-
brick is peculiar, noting the abundance of stone. There is
evidence, however, that the development begins in Upper Egypt
(i.e., the south). Two distinct cultures, the Upper, with social
stratification and royal artistic expression, etc., and the Lower,
with contacts in Palestine, etc.
Egypt seems to go from the Neolithic to a complex civilization
overnight. Linear development is not apparent. Agriculture
appears to be introduced from outside.
The Pharaoh (the king) is somehow responsible for the yearly
success of the Nile. His throne was Isis, the wife of Osiris and
the mother of Horus. The king is identified with Horus.
Egypt seeks to portray changeless continuity over thousands of
years. This is somewhat true, but not entirely accurate. Ancient
Egypt went through a few periods of relative chaos or lack of
centralized power. Egypt, however, as is well known, chose not
to usually record such periods for posterity.
4
Map of Egypt
5

3. Egyptian history begins with King Narmer
Narmer united Upper and Lower Egypt
He is likely the same person as Menes
Mizraim is often the Hebrew name for Egypt
The combination of the two crowns appears.
This is the beginning of the First Dynasty, and of Egyptian
history
He established his capital at the new city of Memphis (= neutral
ground)
It was a new city, said to have arisen out of the ground when
Narmer diverted the Nile.
The royal burial grounds of Saqqara and Giza are located
nearby.
The uniting of Egypt is commemorated on the Palette of King
Narmer (fig. 2.3)
Egyptian artistic canon for relief figures is manifested:
head and feet in profile, with one foot forward, but eye and
shoulders shown frontally (cf. fig. 2.2)
This is the beginning of Egypt’s Bronze Age
It is also the beginning of Egyptian writing, called Egyptian
hieroglyphic.
6
Palette of Narmer
(fig. 2.3)
Celebrates the uniting of Egypt (c. 3100 B.C.)
Also the beginning of the Bronze Age.
Style = Utilizes the register system. No setting (landscape, city,
etc.). King is larger than the others, and the canon of two-
dimensional representation is followed:

4. Head in profile, but eye front-facing.
Shoulders facing forward.
Legs and feet in profile, one foot forward.
Religion of Egypt
Polytheistic: like Mesopotamia, worship of particular deities
centered in particular cities.
Egypt has no eschatology (things just go on), nor concept of
resurrection (early on).
The theocratic state: The king was thought to be divine.
In the early dynasties, he was identified with Horus, son of
Osiris (the king becomes Osiris after death).
The king is linked later in time with Amun-Re (Re is the sun-
god).
“Son” of Amun-Re increasing during 12th Dynasty.
8
The promise of immortality
Ka (p. 19): Presence of the departed at tomb. The body must be
preserved to preserve the ka. Mummification and image of the
person is understood as involving the ka.
Pray to the ka for help and vengeance.
The deceased is offered food and beverage. The mastabas of
Saqqara have “low flat altar[s]” for providing “fresh
provisions” (Edwards 51).
Osiris myth: Osiris, lord of the west (the underworld): symbol
of Pharaonic death and resurrection, and from the Middle
Kingdom on, of others. There is a judgment of the dead, as
found in the Instruction to King Merikare (2100 BC).
The issue of Osiris’ “resurrection”: it is not a resurrection.

5. Book of the Dead
Cult of Isis: Cf. Mary as Theotokos and Rev 13.
By the end of the Old Kingdom, private people were taking on
rights of kings; liturgies of the pyramid texts were altered to
accommodate private citizens.
9
Timeline for Ancient EgyptEarly Dynastic Period
(Dynasties I-II)3100-2686 BC
Palette of King Narmer
Old Kingdom
(Dynasties III-VI)2686-2181 BC
The Pyramid AgeFirst Intermediate Period
(Dynasties VII-X)2180-2040 BC
Middle Kingdom (Dynasties XI-XII)2040-1730 BC
Power centered
at ThebesSecond Intermediate Period
(Dynasties XIII-XVII)1730-1550 BC
The Hyksos
rise to power
(Semitic connections)New Kingdom
(Dynasties XVIII-XX)1550-1080 BC
Powerful, chariot-borne pharaoh; Valley of the Kings
10
Egyptian hieroglyphic
(from the Book of the Dead)

6. 11
Egyptian Dynasties
The Egyptian “Dynasties” are recorded by Manetho, who wrote
a chronology of these dynasties (30 in all) around 3rd cent. BC.
He is significant because his chronology lines up fairly well
with the Turin Canon of about the 19th cent. BC. He, thus,
accurately represents New Kingdom historical understanding of
Egypt’s history. The end of a dynasty tends to mean the end of a
family.
The first two dynasties are buried at Abydos, the seat of Osiris.
Isis (formerly Hathor – goddess of heaven) is his wife; Horus
(the falcon deity) is Isis’ son.
Memphis is ideologically the city of kingship, and is situated on
the west bank of the Nile from nearby Heliopolis (which had a
rival mythology) on the eastern side.
Lunar calendar (total of three in use). Egypt’s year was 365
days long.
First Dynasty mastaba
(Saqqara)

7. 13
Mastaba
A stone structure over a low mound of earth. Based on house
plan. Oriented to the cardinal points of the compass. Chapel
area as place for offerings; false door.
14
Old Kingdom
Old Kingdom: Third Dynasty (2686-2613 BC): True rise of
pharaonic Egypt (related to previous dynasty through daughter).
Capital at Memphis (local deity was Ptah), and stayed that way
through the rest of the Old Kingdom.
Most famous king is King Djoser, who built the Step Pyramid of
Saqqara (Sakkareh), said to be designed by Imhotep, his chief
minister, who was a true polymath (i.e., a person of great and
varied learning).
As a physician, Imhotep came to be identified later with the
Greek deity of medicine, Asclepius.
Beginning of solar cult at Heliopolis (Egyptian name is On; see
Joseph story and Potiphera; present Cairo). Re-Atum, the Sun
god, generated himself from Nun, primordial ocean (Edwards
24). Incorporated cult of Osiris, for both are representative of
death and afterlife.
Zoser Complex (fig. 2.7)

8. Stepped Pyramid of Djoser (Zoser; c. 2600 BC; Third
Dynasty)
* Also known as the Step Pyramid of Saqqara
* The earliest version of the pyramid
* Said to be designed by Imhotep, his chief minister.
* The model may have been the Mesopotamian ziggurat,
and developed from the mastaba form.
* 204 feet high. The base measures 358 to 411 feet.
* Note that it is built on the west bank of the Nile.
16
Zoser
(found in Step Pyramid)
17
The True Pyramids
Old Kingdom: Fourth Dynasty (2613-2494 BC): True pyramids
The true pyramids are an Old Kingdom phenomenon
The first is Seneferu’s at Dahshur, not far from Saqqara, on the
west bank of the Nile (part of the Memphite necropolis)
18

9. The Giza complex
Three major pyramids outside of Cairo (fig. 2.8 – 2.11)
Cheops (Khufu)
Cephren (Khafre; c. 2500 BC)
Mycerinus (Menkare; c. 2470 BC)
Cephren Pyramid Casing Stones
(top of middle pyramid)
20
Passages of the Great Pyramid
21
Passages of the Pyramids
22
Great Pyramid Grand Gallery
23

10. Great Pyramid Sarcophagus
24
The Mesopotamian ziggurat
and the Egyptian pyramid compared
Ziggurat
Mud-brick
Temple to living deity
Breaks down over time
Symbolic of Mesopotamia’s kingdoms: here today and gone
tomorrow
Pyramid
Stone
Tomb for dead Pharaoh
Built for “forever”
Symbolic of Egypt’s value of changeless continuity
The Sphinx
(fig. 2.5)
The Sphinx – Colossal guardian of the dead.
“[E]arliest surviving colossal statue” (Fiero 25)
Lion and man (or woman?).
240 feet long, 66 feet high, width of 13 feet, 8 inches.

11. Cut out of the bedrock
Situated near the pyramid of Khafre (= Giza pyramid complex).
Dates to c. 2500 BC?
Edwards (140). It has suffered from erosion; beyond this, the
head appears too small for the body, and thus perhaps it has
been reworked
Napoleon’s men used it for target practice
Undecorated Sphinx Temple and Valley Temple nearby, the
latter built with post-and-lintel construction with enormous
walls of limestone capped with red granite ashlars (megalithic).
The word “Sphinx” may be from Shesep-ankh (“living image”)
Egyptian art = art of death (Fleming); mummy cases, stone
sarcophagi, death masks, sculptured portraits, pyramids, and
tombs.
26
Valley Building of Cephren (Giza)
27
Statue of Mycerinus
The Egyptian canon for sculpture in the round:
1. Left leg forward
2. Fists clenched
3. Countenance not reflecting emotion
4. Influenced ancient Greek sculpture

12. 5. Idealized representation
6. Quite an advance in representational art
28
Tomb of Pepi II
29
Egyptian Bull Heads
30
Middle Kingdom
(2040-1730 BC)
Occurs after the end of the First Intermediate Period.
Begins with the 12th Dynasty (Theban in origin)
The rise of Thebes: Mentuhotep II unites the country.
Larger than life statues of pharaoh, emphasizing power.
Rise of Amen cult, a local deity; now connected with Re.
Palace at Itj-towy, near Memphis.
Still uses a vizier, an administrative executive.
Efficient oversight of taxation and dues. Mining in Sinai.
Sinuhe indicates overall peaceful relations with Levant.
Fortresses in the south to protect against Nubia.
High point of Egyptian literature.

13. The Second Intermediate Period
Thirteenth Dynasty: Capital at Itj-towy.
Beginning of Second Intermediate Period.
Problems with the Nile diminished reputation of Pharaoh
The end of the 13th Dynasty is “the blast of god smote us” in
the reign of Tutimaios (Manetho via Josephus), which ends
Egyptian isolation from Asia.
Lots of kings (50-60 between 1786 and 1648 BC) from varied
backgrounds, some of foreign origin. Incredible political
Instability.
Egypt eventually became dominated by foreign Semitic rulers
called the Hyksos. They are the “6 shepherds” of Manetho and
the “6 chieftains of foreign countries” of the Turin Canon.
The Hyksos
Hyksos are the rulers of the 15th Dynasty (c. 1648-1540 BC,
during the Second Intermediate Period).
the Rule of the Foreign Kings, or Shepherd Kings
Cf. Genesis 47:3: “Pharaoh asked the brothers, ‘What is your
occupation?’ ‘Your servants are shepherds,’ they replied to
Pharaoh, ‘just as our fathers were.’” Pharaoh then ordered them
to be settled in Goshen (Nile delta).
Their capital was Avaris in the eastern Nile delta.
Kings took on traditional Egyptian titles; marriages between
Avaris and Thebes
Was it a gradual infiltration or sudden invasion?
It is debated if the Hyksos controlled Thebes.
Avaris paintings of bull-leaping (contact with Crete). Minoan
style wall paintings.
Temple structure is Asiatic (Bietak).
Links to the Levant.
The Hyksos introduced the use of bronze weapons and war-

14. chariots, as well as the composite bow.
New weaving methods.
Humped-backed bulls; olive and pomegranate trees. Donkey-
burials (cf. Lachish and Jericho).
The New Kingdom
The Hyksos were expelled c. 1540 BC.
Kamose (last ruler of the 17th Dynasty based at Thebes)
attacked the Hyksos.
The attack protruded into southern Palestine.
The Theban 18th Dynasty is the first of the New Kingdom.
High-point of Egyptian imperialism. Capital at Thebes.
Emphasis on “younger king” who is a warrior, represented as
punishing Egypt’s enemies. In international relations, Pharaoh
not unique; overall cordial relations with other major rulers.
King as divine son of Amun-re (Kuhrt 215).
Egypt (and Kush) are reorganized as a militaristic state.
Introduction of chariot-warfare.
Some of the great temples date to this period, such as at Karnak
(near Thebes)
New Kingdom architecture
Valley of the Kings near Thebes. Elaborate rock-cut royal tombs
on the west bank of the Nile. Tut’s tomb found here.
The Funerary Temple: Temples important during this period. A
great example is the temple/tomb complex of Hatshepsut near
Luxor, which is near Thebes
Built with post-and-lintel construction; hidden sanctuary in a
cliff.
The tomb and the funerary temple were greatly separated.
One does not find pyramids at Luxor (contra Las Vegas).

15. Notable New Kingdom rulers
Amenophis I (1527-1507 BC)
Tuthmosis I (1507-1494 BC): Moved the capital from Thebes to
Memphis. Power consolidation. He was buried across the Nile
from Thebes at the Valley of the Kings. He was the first to be
buried there.
Tuthmosis II: married Hatshepsut, his half-sister.
Notable New Kingdom rulers
Hatshepsut (1490-1469): daughter of Tuthmosis I. Widow of
Tuthmosis II (half-sister).
“She employed pharaonic titles, wore male royal dress, such as
the ceremonial beard, used her daughter, Neferure, to act
ritually as queen and was acknowledged as ‘king’ by her
officials” (Kuhrt 191).
Reigned 22 years. Co-reigned with Tuthmosis III.
Campaigns (successful) into Nubia and probably s. Palestine.
Organized expedition to Punt.
Her funerary temple at Deir el-Bahri near Thebes is quite
impressive.
Acted as regent for husband’s son Tuthmosis III, who ascended
the throne without a problem upon her death, though “some of
her monuments were defaced” by him. Because she is removed
from inscriptions, it is difficult to determine all she did.
Notable New Kingdom rulers
Tuthmosis III (1490-1436 BC): Son of Tuthmosis II.
Classic model of NK warrior-pharaoh. 17 campaigns over 20
years. Claimed most of Palestine.
Made treaty with Hittites. Treaty with Mesopotamians.

16. Amenophis II (1438-1412 BC):
Deported to Egypt many from Syro-Pal. and made slaves of
them (Late Bronze in Palestine is sparsely populated and lacks
wealth).
Amenophis III (1403-1364 BC). Son of Tuthmosis IV.
Enjoyed a long reign (almost 40 years) as a result of his
predecessor’s treaty with Mitanni (married two Mitanni
princesses). It was “a time of peace and prosperity” (Kuhrt
194). Contributed to Amarna Letters.
Small temple at Soleb shows him worshipping himself.
His most famous wife was Queen Tiye, perhaps a Nubian or
commoner of high regard.
The Amarna Revolution in the New Kingdom:
A political, artistic and religious revolution
Centered around Amenophis IV, who became known as
Akhenaten (his wife was Nefertiti; Tutankhamun may have been
his brother)
A new capital: at today’s el-Amarna
A new style of art (figs. 2.1, 2.16, 2.17)
Sentimental scenes of the royal family
Akhenaten as androgynous
A new religion
The sun disk (the Aten) was to be solely worshipped
Note the change in the names from Amen to Aten
Note The Hymn to the Aten (Reading 2.1)
39
Akhenaten
and the
Amarna
Revolution

17. 40
Queen Nefertiti
Head of Nefertiti: found at Amarna. Extremely famous.
Late New Kingdom rulers
Rameses II (1290-1224 BC; 19th Dynasty). Long reign (67
years).
Warrior and builder.
Refounding of Avaris as royal and dynastic capital (Per-
Ramses, “The House of Rameses”).
Fought Hittites at Battle of Kadesh.
One of the primary candidates for the pharaoh of the Exodus.
Merneptah (1224-1204 BC):
Helped the Hittites during their famine.
Campaigned in s. Palestine.
Fought the Sea-Peoples in his fifth year (1209 BC; inscription
at Karnak).
His stele, the Merneptah Stele, mentions “Israel.”
The Rosetta Stone (p. 12, fig. 0.16)
Found by one of Napoleon Bonaparte’s engineers at Rosetta,
Egypt.
Black Granite 45” x 24”

18. A trilingual inscription in Greek, demotic, and hieroglyphic
demotic = simplified Egyptian writing
The text commemorates the first anniversary of the accession of
Ptolemy V (196 BC).
It was the cartouches that allowed a comparison with Greek
Deciphered after 23 years by Jean Champollion, and the results
published in 1822.
Opened up an understanding of Egypt.
Note that elite writing lasts
43
Nubia / Kush
Nubia: possible source of certain aspects of Egyptian culture
Another Nile River culture
Kush = biblical Cush
Meroë as capital
“[F]irst literate urban civilization to appear in Africa south of
the Sahara” (Fiero 60).
Traders
2000-1700 BC: threat to Egypt, thus fortresses by Sesotris I
1700 BC: Kerma Culture: mass burial and sacrifice.
Ruled Egypt 750-660 BC
Emphasis on the god Amun
44
Nubia / Kush & W. Sudan
King Shabaqo bronze statue (fig. 2.23)

19. Amon and the ram’s horns
The Nok Culture of w. Sudan (1st mill. BC)
Terracotta head (fig. 2.24)
45
Major categories of understanding
Cosmology (and New Year)
The deity / deities (and worship)
Polytheism
Monotheism
Life and death
The cycle of birth and death (and re-birth)
Fertility
Sacred space
Rulership
Social structure
46
Works Cited
Edwards, I. E. S. The Pyramids of Egypt. New York: Penguin
Books, 1993. Print.
Fiero, Gloria K. The Humanistic Tradition Volume 2: The
Early Modern World to the Present. 6th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2010. Print.
Kuhrt, Amelie. The Ancient Near East c. 3000-330 BC. 2 Vols.
New York: Routledge, 1995. Print.

20. Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East
Fiero, chapter 1
Mesopotamia
“The Land between the Waters”
The Tigris and Euphrates rivers (cf. Gen 2:14)
The biblical “Land of Shinar” (Gen 11:2)

21. 2
3

22. 4
Cf. Nimrod
Cush fathered Nimrod; he was the first on earth to be a
mighty man. He was a mighty hunter before the LORD.
Therefore it is said, “Like Nimrod a mighty hunter before the
LORD.” The beginning of his kingdom was Babel [Babylon],
Erech [Uruk], Accad [Akkad], and Calneh, in the land of Shinar
[Sumer/Mesopotamia]. From that land he went into Assyria and
built Nineveh, Rehoboth-Ir, Calah [Nimrud], and Resen between
Nineveh and Calah; that is the great city. (Gen 10:8-12 ESV,
bracketed material added)

23. 5
Timeline for MesopotamiaPeriodDatesCommentsSignificant
CitiesSignificant LeadersSumerianBegins
c. 3500 BC
ED I: 2900-2700 BC
ED II: 2700-2600 BC
ED III: 2600-2350 BCBeginning of Bronze Age
History begins
Uruk
Eridu
Ur
NippurGilgameshAkkadian
(Semitic)2340-2159 BCExtension of empire
buildingAccadSargon the Great
Naram-SinUr III2122-2004 BCSumerian revivalUr-NammuOld
Babylonian
(Semitic)c. 2000-1600 BCAmorites
(w. Semitic group)BabylonHammurabi
In Mesopotamia, empires and rulers come and go, which is
unlike Egypt.

24. 6
Timeline for Mesopotamia
continuedPeriodDatesCommentsSignificant CitiesSignificant
LeadersNeo-Assyrian
(Semitic)934-610 BCn. MesopotamiaAshur
Nineveh
KhorsabadAshurnasirpal II
Tiglath-pileser IIINeo-Babylonian
(= Chaldean)
(Semitic)626-539 BCs. MesopotamiaBabylonNebuchad-
nezzarPersian
(= Achaemenid)
(Indo-European)c. 550-330 BCe. Mesopotamia
(modern Iran); ZoroastrianismPersepolis
SusaCyrus (II) the Great
Darius I
Xerxes
All date ranges in these tables are from Amelie Kuhrt, The
Ancient Near East c. 3000-330 BC (New York: Routledge,
1995).
7

25. Sumer
(begins c. 3500 BC)
Civilization begins at Sumer
Writing begins at Sumer. The Sumerians “are list freaks”
The Sumerian language is unrelated to any other language.
Key study: History Begins at Sumer by Samuel Noah Kramer
City of Eridu: shift to agriculture (from hunting).
Irrigation in the desert
Ubaid period to latest Sumerian period = continuous; Ubaid is
therefore the earliest Sumerian period, which dates back to c.
5000 BC. The sacred precinct dated 2100-2000 BC at Eridu was
built on earlier sanctuaries as far back as Ubaid I.
Importance of sacred spots or places.
8
Sumer as civilization
“The appearance of writing, the elaborate buildings, the use of
imported materials, sophisticated art-works and the population
increase reflected in the size of settlements, all signal the
emergence of substantial urban communities with developed
socio-economic structures. Nothing else can explain the
materials, techniques and scale of buildings” (Kuhrt 25,
emphasis added).

26. Sumer political culture
Empire-building begins
Famous for legal codes
Cf. Moses later on
Sumerian art
Free standing sculpture (fig. 1.9)
Large, wide eyes
Continuous eyebrows
Transfixed expression
Relief sculpture (fig. 1.2)

27. Sumerian city of Uruk
Uruk (biblical Erech; 4000-2900 BC) represents:
technological changes, such as the pottery wheel and “increased
metal production” [i.e., bronze] (Kuhrt 22).
writing for accounting purposes; emerging bureaucracy.
development of hierarchical structure. Difficult to determine
occupation of top officials.
Uruk is the largest site in Sumeria; the rampart (embankment of
earth) runs 6.2 miles and is 5,000 years old. By the late 4th
millennium BC = 247 acres.
ED I (2900 BC): Wall of Uruk (see Epic of Gilgamesh). Walled
city, insulated from the world outside.
The city is associated with Gilgamesh (c. 2700 BC; Sumerian)
Later, expansion of Uruk world: colonization to the north.

28. Cuneiform tablet
Cuneiform: the type of writing developed in Mesopotamia
Cuneiform writing developed out of pictographic writing, and
was primarily used for business. Begins with the Sumerians, and
is picked up by Akkadians and Hittites. Akkadian then became
the lingua franca of the Bronze Age Near East (Egyptian and
Hittite kings communicated in it).
13
Sumerian political environment
Sumer was made up of about a dozen city-states, which were
walled cities with village settlements outside.
The cities could be quite large; Ur (c. 2000 BC), according to
Kramer, had about 200,000 people (Sumerians 88-9).
Ur is original home of Abraham (Genesis 11:28, 31; 15:7)
The most important social institution was the temple complex,
which included the ziggurat (and its priests)
Each city was governed by an ensi.
Kramer notes that there were bicameral assemblies of “elders”
and “men.”
Over time, due to military needs, kingship evolved and the

29. palace grew in power. The king was known as “the big man.”
The Ziggurat
“The most prominent building in the temple complex from
earliest times was the ziggurat” (Walton, Ancient Near Eastern
Thought 120)
Associated with a particular deity’s temple complex
The structure itself:
The ziggurats of Mesopotamia are like the “empires” of
Mesopotamia – here today and gone tomorrow.
Built of mud-brick
Mesopotamia has little stone or wood
They lack interiors
Stairways (cf. Jacob’s ladder at Genesis 28)
Chamber at the top had bed and table for the deity
Oriented to the four points of the compass
Built on a sacred site
The concept of “sacred space”
The navel or center of the earth
Like the Tower of Babel in Genesis 11, they function as the
meeting point of heaven and earth. The ziggurat at Ur stands
today as the best-preserved example of the Mesopotamian
ziggurat.

30. 15
Ziggurat of King Ur-Nammu; ca. 2500-2050 B.C.
U.S. soldiers ascending the ziggurat
16
Sumerian economy
The economy was agricultural, not industrial. Early
Mesopotamia traded food because they had a surplus of food;
they developed higher yielding barley. There was plenty of free-
ownership of land; even the poor are known to have owned
“houses, gardens, and fishing ponds” (Kramer 75). The nobility
had estates of hundreds of acres.

31. Sumerian society
The basic unit of society was the patriarchal family and clan.
Often land was owned within family groups (we have tablets
indicating that family members were present as witnesses for
sales of land).
There were slaves (prisoners of war), and what emerges from
the texts is that children were sold into slavery for money.
Kramer notes that “a man might turn over his entire family to
creditors” (78). Some slaves were mistreated, but they had
rights (“engage in business, borrow money, and buy their
freedom” [78]). The price of a slave was 20 shekels for a man,
less than the cost of a donkey. Children of slave/free marriages
were free.
Arranged marriages. Women could possess property, take part
in business, and be a witness at official transactions (as far back
as 2700 BC are deeds of sale). However, their husbands could
easily divorce them, and if a woman bore no children, the
husband could seek a second wife. Children could inherit their
parent’s property at death, and adoption of children is well-
attested (Kramer 78-9).

32. Sumer: legal codes
2350 BC: Urukagina of Lagash initiates “sweeping” reforms
(discovered in triplicate).
It is the earliest legal declaration:
“[Urukagina] solemnly promised Ningirsu that he would never
subject the waif and the widow to the powerful” (qtd. in Kuhrt
39).
The first time the word “freedom” appears in a text (amargi –
“Return to the mother”; enigmatic – obscure; rebirth?; see
Kramer 79).
Kramer thinks the reforms were due to the increasing power of
the palace. Due to an expansionist policy, in order to supply the
needs of the military, there was increased taxation and
confiscation of property, even that held by the temples. This is
the first “church and state” conflict. The people sided with the
temple.
Emerging power of the palace (civil ruler).
These reforms show how women were subjugated by men:
“Women in former times each had two men, but women of today
have been made to give up that crime” (qtd. in Kuhrt 40). If a
woman spoke disrespectfully to a man, she “shall have her
mouth crushed with a baked brick; the brick was to be displayed
at the city-gate” (Kuhrt 39).

33. Treasures of the Royal Tombs of Ur
Woolley’s Royal Tombs of Ur (ED III, c. 2600-2340).
Bull-harp with beard (figs. 1.3 and 1.4): from tomb of Queen
Puabi at Ur. Guardian of the gateway to the afterlife.
Scenes from the Epic of Gilgamesh
Beards as symbol of power.
Gold, carnelian and lapis lazuli (from n.e. Afghanistan).
Inaid Standard (fig. 1.6)
The king is the largest figure (“big-man”).
Note that the chariots are drawn by asses, not horses, which
were not known in Mesopotamia until, at the earliest, 2000 BC.
Human sacrifice
Ruler and his retainers; many victims/attendants. No texts to
help us understand the meaning. Basically unanticipated until
discovered. Some hint of this in the Epic of Gilgamesh (“The
Death of Gilgamesh” section): those who “lay with him”: “wife,
son, concubine, musician, entertainer, and chief valet,
household attendants” (Kramer 130).

34. 20
Treasures from the tombs of Ur
21
Inlaid Standard
Note that the animals are donkeys, not horses

35. Mesopotamian deities
Anu: heaven
Enlil (chief): storm
Sin (Nanna): moon
Ishtar (Inanna): fertility
Tammuz (Dumuzi): young, dying god
Enki: underworld waters
Shamash: sun deity of justice
Marduk: chief deity of later Old Babylonian Kingdom
It is now clear that the Greeks adapted their own deities to some
of these deities, at least at the mythic level.
Cylinder Seal

36. 24
Sumer
Movement toward empire-building
Lugalzagesi – End of ED III: Time of formation of larger
political units.
Became ruler of combined Uruk-Ur-Umma group.
Claimed rulership of the area; claimed to be established by Enlil
of Nippur (the top deity of the Sumerian pantheon). Claimed
rulership “‘from the Upper Sea (Mediterranean) to the Lower
Sea ([Persian] Gulf)’” (Kramer 43).
Consolidation of political control “through land grants made to
local rulers . . . , thereby turning them into dependent governors
and laying the foundations of an administrative system for his
new domain (Kuhrt 44).
Thus, the concept of “empire,” as we know it, begins in human
history c. 2350 BC.
The Akkadians
Akkad Dynasty: Major expansion outward of Mesopotamian
“arms, commerce, and culture” (Gordon, Common 54).

37. Akkadian is a Semitic language, related to Hebrew and Arabic.
In the archaeological record, Akkadians were present in the
earlier Sumerian period. Sumer, in fact, was a multicultural
society.
The first great leader of the Akkadians was Sargon the Great
(2340-2284 BC; fig. 1.5)
His capital was at Agade (location uncertain) in the northern
part of southern Mesopotamia. A new city, perhaps only a
settlement in ED.
Increase in written use of Akkadian at this time. Extensive
documentation.
26
Sargon the Great
Sargon the Great, Akkadian king (see fig. 1.5):
The stuff of legends and tales. Birth-legend (from late Assyrian
720-610 BC; see Kuhrt 48). Born in secret, never knew who his
father was, placed in a basket of rushes and floated on the river.
Drawn from water. Earlier tales give him a humble birth.
“He somehow entered the court of Urzababa, the king of Kish,
and rose in his service to become royal cupbearer” (Kuhrt 48-9).
His name means “legitimate king.”
Compares favorably to Nimrod from the Bible
Destroyed the walls of Uruk. Captured Lugalzagesi. Defeated

38. Ur and Umma as well.
“King of lands.” King represents political centralization (Kuhrt
51, 54).
Campaigns against western Iran, northern area, Mari, and Ebla,
even perhaps as far as “Cedar Forest and Silver Mountain”
(Mediterranean).
Claimed suzerainty over the “Four Quarters of earth,” control
over “throne-rooms from the rising of the sun to the setting of
the sun” (Gordon, Common 24-25). “King of the Universe”
Sargon the Great
Had merchants in Asia Minor.
56-year reign.
Daughter is Enheduanna, installed as cultic “bride” at Ur to
moon-god (Nanna).
Enheduanna: Woman poet who is the earliest known literary
figure in world history; wrote poetry in Sumerian (though she is
Akkadian).
King as mediator between gods and men. “Provider of wealth,
status, and safety” (Kuhrt 54). King as warrior. World Empire =
Divine Kingship (Gordon).
Standardization of script, measures, calendar and archive-
keeping indicates centralization.
Akkadian art is a change in representation of the individual.
Freedom of movement. Individual. Gods fighting in combat
scenes (before they were fighting with animals).

39. Naram-Sin
Naram-Sin (2260-2223 BC), Sargon’s grandson.
High point of Akkadian empire, ruling from n. Syria to w. Iran.
Campaigning even to the west of Ebla. “King of the Four
Quarters.”
Destroyed Ebla? (If not, then it was Sargon who did it).
Lots of texts from this time.
Other members of royal family filled cultic offices in southern
Mesopotamia and elsewhere (e.g., Mari). Relatives as
governors. Extensive temple construction.
The first Mesopotamian ruler to deify himself, with cult
established at Nippur, the chief seat of the head of the Sumerian
pantheon, Enlil (Kuhrt 51). Temple to him at Agade, because he
withstood a major threat to his realm.
Dynasty maintained control right through his successor, Shar-
kali-shari.

40. Victory Stele of Naram-Sin
(Akkadian period)
Note: Horns of power and size of the ruler;
stars represent divinity; Naram-Sin ascends the mountain
30
Ur III (2112-2004 BC)
Sumerian renaissance. Sumerian reemerges as “cultured” dead
language.
Classical form of Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh composed at this
time.
Schools founded for training future officials.
The state controlled the economy.
Ur Nammu (ruled 2112-2095 BC): First king of Ur III dynasty.
“King of Sumeria and Agade.”
Important building projects; built ziggurat at Uruk. Killed in
war.

41. Ur III rulers were heirs to Agade (Akkad), who misused their
power.
The earliest extant law code (written in Sumerian) by Shulgi, a
warrior-king, successor of Ur-Nammu, with a poetic prologue
and epilogue. “The orphan did not fall a prey to the wealthy,”
the “widow did not fall a prey to the powerful,” and the “man of
one shekel did not fall a prey to the man of one mina (sixty
shekels).”
Note “protect the weak” mandate
Hymns of the time emphasize unity and harmony of land under
a single ruler (Kuhrt, 69).
31
The Epic of Gilgamesh
The earliest known epic
Extremely popular all over the Near East
An Akkadian fragment found at Megiddo in Israel (Amarna
Age) indicates it was in Palestine before the Israelites.
Translated into Hittite and Hurrian, and more recently
discovered in Elamite (as a drama).
Still popular as late as Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian
empires.
Gilgamesh still a character in literature as late as the Arabian

42. Nights
Within the epic is a flood story with parallels to the Genesis
flood story.
Utnapishtim is the Noah of the Sumerian flood story
32
The Epic of Gilgamesh
An epic is a poem/tale about a hero
Bravery and fame
Gilgamesh is part human, part god; he wears a lion’s pelt, much
like the later Greek Herakles (Hercules)
Tension between companionship (Enkidu) and desire
(Ishtar/Astarte/Aphrodite).
Humans are subject to the whims of the gods
Major theme: Death and the question of immortality.
Conclusion: There is only this life; make the best of it.
The afterlife is a gloomy existence.
Near the end of his quest, Gilgamesh is told to retrieve a plant
that gives immortality. He obtained it, but then a serpent stole it
from him.

43. 33
When the seventh day arrived,
I released a dove to go free,
The dove went and returned,
No landing place came into view, it turned back.
I released a swallow to go free,
The swallows went and turned,
No landing place came to view, it turned back.
I sent a raven to go free,
The raven went forth, saw the ebbing of the waters,
It ate, circled, left droppings, did not turn back.
Epic of Gilgamesh (from Archaeological Study Bible 14)
Old Babylonian Kingdom
2000-1600 BC

44. Amorites, a west Semitic people, are dominant
Old Babylonian language is the southern dialect of Akkadian
Most famous is king is Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC)
The Law Code of Hammurabi basalt stele (fig. 1.7).
Shamash, the sun god, as deity of justice, giving the law
“Justice should prevail in the land” so that “the strong might
not oppress the weak.” Protection of widows and orphans
Example of lex talionis legal code, that is, punishment is equal
to the offense (cf. Lev 24:19-20; then compare the Sermon on
the Mount at Matt 5:38-39)
OBK sacked by the Hittites in 1595 BC.
Ancient archive of 20,000 texts discovered at Amorite Mari,
another powerful city further up the Euphrates River.
Babylonian relief sculpture (fig. 1.2)
35
Hammurabi
and
Shamash

45. 36
The Hittites
The Hittites
Major Near Eastern power, an Anatolian civilization forgotten
to history (much like the Sumerians). They were Indo-
Europeans. In 1906, Hittite tablets were discovered at
Baghazköy, their ancient capital, and the Hittites were
rediscovered.
However, they were mentioned a number of times in the Bible,
e.g., Joshua 1:4; Genesis 10:15; 15:20; 23:3.
They helped spread the Indo-European war chariot around the
Near East, and, though they emerge in the Bronze Age (c. 1800
BC), they introduced iron-working, helping to eventually bring
on the Iron Age.
Suppiluliuma I: 1344-1322 BC
Hittite kings after him trace themselves to him. He was
victorious in eastern lands and took the capital of the Mitanni
(Washshukanni), turning the Mitanni (Hurrian) state into a
buffer against Assyrian expansion.
Established famous Carchemish on the Euphrates as seat of
authority.
Established friendly relations with Egyptian king (either
Akhenaten or Tutankhamun); recognized by the Egyptian ruler
as an“equal.” Sent his son to Egypt, who was then murdered.
Went to Egypt to avenge, but caught illness and died.

46. Levant cultures and civilizations
Levant = Syro-Palestine region (generally, the area of modern
Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Jordan, and Syria).
Damascus in Syria may be the oldest city in the world (founded
before 5000 BC)
Ebla in Syria
Canaanite Settlements
Map of the ancient Levant
http://www.siue.edu/~stamari/AncientLevantMap.gif

47. Ebla: Forgotten major city
Ebla (Tell Mardikh) in Syria, near Aleppo:
Over 15,000 tablets discovered, beginning in 1975, dating to c.
2450-2350 BC. The tablets reveal cuneiform script and the
Eblaite language (which is Semitic).
“The evidence from Ebla shows how the biblical patriarchs of
the second millennium BC inherited a sophisticated N Syrian
culture already present for 500 years” (NBD 287).
It was ruled by a prince or king and a body of elders.
The economy was agricultural (wool, textiles, olive oil, wine).
Gold and silver were available in large quantities (like Ur III,
the means of exchange).
Ugarit: Canaanite City
Ugarit: Modern Ras Shamra in Syria. Coastal city-state. A
substantial town as early as 3rd millennium BC. Represents
Canaanite culture from 1400-1200 BC.

48. Important archives of hundreds of clay tablets were found in the
temple library beginning in 1929.
Early alphabet revealed
Some of the tablets are trilingual: Sumerian, Akkadian, and
Hurrian. Ugaritic language is north-west Semitic and is related
to Hebrew. ABCs of 30 letters (cuneiform script) led to
Phoenician alphabet of 22 letters. Alphabetic writing comes
from the Canaanites. The Canaanites (Phoenicians) passed it on
to the Greeks.
Literary material with parallels to poetry of the Old Testament.
According to Gordon, the Ugaritic literature parallels later
Greek and Hebrew in places (12).
41
Ugarit along the Mediterranean coast
Fell under Hittite control in time of Suppiluliuma I. Ugarit ruler
Niqmaddu II on friendly terms with Suppiluliuma I and Egypt.
A major treaty has been found (written in Akaddian) between
Suppiluliuma and Naqmuddu II.
Niqmepa (1310-1260 BC) made new treaty with Mursili II,
revealing governing relationships in Syria. Hittite kings were
supreme.

49. Two temples found (Baal and Dagon).
Agricultural (grain, wine, olives).
Purple-dyed linen and wool. Cloth in mass quantities. Had
plenty of gold and silver, which allowed them not to supply men
to Hittite army. Merchants figure prominently. Minoan and
Mycenaean wares. Favorable trade location.
Population made up of Canaanites and Hurrians (based on
names).
Deities of Syro-Palestine area
El: head of pantheon
Ba’al (chief): storm; analogous (at least) to Marduk and Bel of
Mesopotamia
Ashtoreth (Astarte): fertility; homologous to Mesopotamian
Ishtar; Queen of Heaven (see fig. 1.2)
Molech: human sacrifice
Dagon: grain

50. Arch. Study Bible 515.
43
The Dark Age
(1100-800 BC)
A significant break in the historical record.
Collapse of Mycenaean civilization
Troy collapses
Hittite kingdom destroyed
Ugarit destroyed by Sea-Peoples: Clay tablet in an overn: “The
boats are gone”
Egypt lets go of Palestine
Move to iron technology (Iron Age)
Migration of Greek-speaking peoples to the coast of Asia Minor
(Ionia)
Rise of Aramaean as the lingua franca of the Near East
Shift in political configuration: Large empires fell; new states
appear (e.g., Israel and Judah)
Invasion of the “Sea-peoples”

51. 9/26/18
44
Phoenicians
Chief cities: Tyre, Sidon and Byblos, all on the coast (today’s
modern Lebanon and s. Syria)
Continuation of Canaanite culture.
The Carthaginians, people of the Phoenician (Punic) colony of
Carthage in North Africa, still referred to themselves as
Canaanites in St. Augustine’s day (c. AD 400).
They gave Europe the alphabet.
Sea-faring people of the new Iron Age, known for their purple
dye (from which “Phoenician”), importation of tin, and
colonization (Cyprus, Carthage, Sicily, “Tarshish” in Spain,
Cadiz near Gibraltar).
Closely related to the Hebrews (culturally and linguistically);
Deborah noted the ships of Dan (Judges 5:17). Strong ties with
David and Solomon (2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kings 5:1-12; 9:27; 10:22);
Jezebel; even Jesus made the point of ministering there (Mark
7:24).
Philistines
One of the Peoples of the Sea that attacked Ramesses III (1185

52. BC; Peleset of Egyptian records).
Settled on coast of Israel. The word “Palestine” comes from
“Philistine.”
Their language is unknown. Perhaps writing was rare. They are
likely Aegean in origin (based on pottery).
Bible: Philistines are from Caphtor (Crete; Amos 9:7).
Dominant during the Period of the Judges (1200-1000 BC).
Dominant until 1000 BC, when David conquered them (2 Sam
5:17-25).
Another school (Zinger) thinks they are from Anatolia:
References in Egyptian sources point to Anatolia (Lukka) and
Denunu.
Names etymologically connected to Anatolia (Goliath).
46
Philistines
Five major cities (Philistine Pentapolis) in and near the modern
Gaza Strip.
Ekron, modern Tel Miqne, is a city of the Philistine Pentapolis.
Large Iron Age site (40 acres).
Besieged by the Neo-Assyrian Sargon II (712 BC), which is
depicted on a wall relief of his palace at Khorsabad.
May have been destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (Babylonian
Chronicle).

53. The other cities of the Pentapolis are Ashdod, Gaza, Ashkelon,
and Gath.
Israel and Judah
Israelites: Never in Assyrian documents are Israel and Judah
linked together.
Israel League: Samaria, Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, Hamath,
Damascus.
Judah League: Judah, Ashkelon, Gaza, Ashdod, Moab, Edom.
The alphabet
a b c d e z h i/j k l m n o p q r s t u

54. alef bet gimel dalet he vav khet tet yod kaf lamed
nun ayin pe tsade qof resh shin sin tav
zayin
mem samek
alpha beta gamma epsilon zeta eta theta iota kappa mu
nu ksee pi rho sigma tau
delta lambda
omicron
49
Mesopotamian Iron Age Empires
Neo-Assyrian
Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BC) killing lions (below and fig.
1.1). Represents the power of the Assyrian king. (see also figs.
1.13, 1.14 and 1.15)
Powerful, warlike kingdom. Took the northern kingdom of
Israel into captivity (722 BC; see figs. 1.12 A & B)
Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean)
Famous ruler is Nebuchadnezzar II (see Book of Daniel), who
rebuilt Babylon (see fig. 1.11)

55. His father helped to sack Nineveh (612 BC); Nebuchadnezzar
destroyed Jerusalem c. 587 BC, taking the southern kingdom of
Judah captive.
50
Persia
Medes and Persians – the two largest tribes. The Persians are
Indo-Europeans. Today, modern Iran.
Achaemenian dynasty of the Persians. Led by Cyrus II “the
Great” – enlightened for the times. In Isaiah 45:1 he is called
“Messiah.” Conquered parts of Asia Minor and Babylon.
Tolerant (Ezra 6:1ff). Ruled over the Jews.
Extensive bureaucracy; highways, mail system, “eyes and ears”
Fought the Greeks at Marathon, Thermopylae, Plataea, Salamis
Later fought Alexander the Great
Behistun Inscription: 25’ x 50’, 350’ up a mountain cliff. Old
Persian cuneiform, Elamite, Babylonian cuneiform. Helped to
decipher Near Eastern antiquity.

56. Tomb of Cyrus – discovered in 1951 at
Pasargadae, Iran.
51
Persian Empire at 500 BC
52
Ruins at Perseopolis – present day Iran

57. 53
Apadana – Palace of Darius I and Xerxes;
Perseopolis, Iran
54
Zoroastrianism
Indo-European in origin, its deities can be found in Vedic
religion as well. The sacred text is the Zend Avesta.
Open air fire altars

58. Radical dualism: A cosmic struggle between good and evil;
Ahura Mazda, “Lord of Wisdom,” vs. Angra Mainyu, “Evil
spirit,” that is, “Ahriman.”
The world is their battle ground. Movement is toward victory of
the good.
This exclusive monotheism in Persia “demonized all other gods
and all other religions” (Riley, River 37).
Advocates puritanical behavior as a way to gain favor in the
afterlife; it is a salvation religion. Some will be resurrected to
enjoy heaven through belief and just acts.
Prophesies a Last Judgment by fire and a final banquet. No
more time; no eternal punishment.
Near the end, born of a virgin, will be Saoshyant – a World
Savior.
55
Mesopotamian influences
Mesopotamia:
Writing
Sexagesimal system:
A system based on the number 60 (5 x 12): today we have the

59. one’s clock or watch is a reminder of Sumeria.
The Mesopotamian year was 12 lunar months long (as with the
Hebrews); Egypt followed a 365-day year cycle.
Potter’s wheel and the wheeled vehicle.
Works Cited
Fiero, Gloria K. The Humanistic Tradition Volume 2: The
Early Modern World to the Present. 6th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2010. Print.
Gordon, Cyrus H. Common Background of Greek and Hebrew
Civilizations. New York: Norton, 1965. Print.
Kramer, Samuel Noah. The Sumerians: Their History, Culture,
and Character. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, 1971.
Print.
Kuhrt, Amelie. The Ancient Near East c. 3000-330 BC. 2 Vols.
New York: Routledge, 1995. Print.
Walton, John H. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old
Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the
Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006. Print.
Walton, John H. The Lost World of Genesis One: Ancient
Cosmology and the Origins Debate. IVP Academic, 2009.
Print.

60. Near Eastern and African influence on Greek culture
Bernal, Martin. Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of
Classical Civilization. 2 Vols. New Brunswick: Rutgers Univ.
Press, 1987, 1991.
Burkert, Walter. The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern
Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age. Trans.
Margaret E. Pinder and Walter Burkert. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1992.
West, M. L. The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in
Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford: Clarendon, 1999.

61. 36493.15
The Pyramids of Giza
The True Pyramids
Include those of the Giza complex (outside of Cairo)
Three major pyramids:
Cheops (Khufu); the pyramid most distant in the following
photo; it is known as the Great Pyramid
Cephren (Khafre); the middle pyramid of the three large
pyramids at Giza
Mycerinus (Menkare)
Just like the mastabas and ziggurats of Mesopotamia, all three
major Giza pyramids are oriented to the cardinal points of the
compass.
2

62. The Great Pyramid
The tomb of Cheops (Khufu, son of Seneferu).
The oldest pyramid of three Giza pyramids, and the largest.
Built of 2.3 million blocks, weighing an average 2 and ½ tons
each.
The base averages 756 feet per side, and the edifice covers
about 13 acres.
481 feet high (missing 31 feet of the capstone).
Oriented to the four cardinal points of the compass.
Grand Gallery is 153 feet long and 28 feet high; walls of
polished limestone.
Outer limestone covering, which was later removed, often to be
incorporated into mosques, etc
No inscriptions, just a few “quarry” marks. No bodies found.
The other two major Giza pyramids
Chefren’s pyramid (Khafre; c. 2500 BC)
Chefren’s pyramid only looks larger than Cheop’s because it
actually has a sharper angle of slope to the sides, so not as
much material was incorporated into it.
Chefren’s pyramid still has some of the exterior casing stones
near its top
The Great Sphinx is associated with Chefren’s pyramid
Mycerinus’ pyramid (Menkare; c. 2470 BC)

63. Casing stones at the top of Cephren’s pyramid
Some think these three pyramids are aligned according
to the alignment of the stars in Orion’s belt.
All major pyramids are found west of the Nile River.
Much later, the burials of New Kingdom royalty in the Valley of
the Kings are west of the Nile as well.
Ziggurat vs. Pyramid
Associated with a temple of a living deity
Built of mud-brick and fired brick
Breaks down over time
Represents the ever-changing, impermanent political situation
of Mesopotamia, which is eventually forgotten
Tomb of a king

64. Built of stone
Built for “forever”
Represents the continuous civilization of Egypt, which is never
forgotten