Workers with less than 1 year of experience or who were younger preferred on-site practical training, while those with over 6 years of experience were willing to spend time reading professional materials. Respondents who worked longer hours and those with more experience had a stronger desire to learn. Elder workers disagreed with needing on-site training, but those over 65 still showed a high motivation to learn, possibly to challenge their minds as they aged. Farmers' learning needs and preferences vary depending on their age, experience, and work hours, so these factors should be considered in educational programs.

1. Effects of Age and Experience on Learning Activities for Animal Farmers
Effects of Age and Experience on Learning Activities for
Animal Farmers
1
Hsiu Chu Lee and *2
Liang Chou Hsia
1,2Department of Tropical Agriculture and International Cooperation, National Pingtung University of Science and
Technology
The aim of the study was to examine the attitudes towards learning of farmers with different
working experience and age from animal production in Taiwan. A questionnaire was prepared and
distributed to the participants of conferences or training courses. Data obtained from the
questionnaires were analyzed using SAS. The results showed that workers with experience of
less than 1 year and younger ages in the animal industry thought it necessary to invite
professionals to farms for training. Workers with experience above 6 years, and working more
than 12 hours daily were willing to spend time reading professional books or magazines. The
more hours the people worked daily, the more they felt the necessity of attending professional
training courses and conferences. The elder the workers, the more they disagreed with the
necessity to invite industry professionals for training. When problems occurred, those with work
experience above 6 years and age above 65 years old would seek experts first to solve problems.
Respondents of longer working hours and more work experience had a much higher desire to
learn. Farmers’ needs and preferences should be taken into consideration when implementing
extension education.
Keywords: Animal Production; Farmer; Learning; Motivation; Extension Education
INTRODUCTION
In the basic principles of traditional Chinese education and
learning, Confucius said that there is no discrimination in
teaching, which means that everyone has the opportunity
to learn. However, today's farm employees are young and
old; some are quite experienced, while others are not. If
they are taught the same way and the same things, it will
inevitably lead to many unacceptable teaching methods
and knowledge. It is better to understand the real
differences in the needs among them, and use the
appropriate methods and knowledge to teach them,
allowing them to achieve greater results.
In times of technology change and aging society, learning
is endless over the life span. Learning is the top-rated
challenge among the 2019 Global Human Capital Trends
(Deloitte Insights, 2019) with 86% of respondents rating
this issue as important or very important. Motivation is one
of the most important factors in learning and this provides
guidance to face the challenges in life. Knowles et al.
(2005) presented six assumptions on adult learning and
mentioned that the most potent motivators are internal
pressures, such as the desire for increased job
satisfaction, self-esteem, quality of life, and the like. This
motivation gives the basis for the people to react and fulfill
their needs.
Building a lifelong-learning habit provides a fertile
environment within which creative ideas and innovative
solutions grow (Castleberry et al., 2019). The benefits of
lifelong learning are helping to adapt to change, having a
higher income, and an enriching and fulfilling life (Laal and
Salamati, 2012). According to Mahoney’s (2017) analysis,
the most popular theme of lifelong learning was economy,
in the sense of contributing to the economy in the role of a
worker. Farm workers are important resources. Good farm
workers especially are the key factor among all animal
production systems (English et al., 1992). Researchers
*Corresponding Author: Liang Chou Hsia; No. 1 Shuefu
Road, Neipu, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan, ROC.
Tel: 886-8-7701094, Fax: 886-8-7700984,
Email: lchsia@mail.npust.edu.tw
Co-Author Email: hclee@mail.npust.edu.tw; Tel: 886-8-
7701094, Fax: 886-8-7700984
Research Article
Vol. 6(1), pp. 300-305, January, 2020. © www.premierpublishers.org. ISSN: 2167-0432
International Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension

2. Effects of Age and Experience on Learning Activities for Animal Farmers
Lee and Hsia 301
indicated that, under good human-animal relations, dairy
cattle can improve milk yield (Seabrook, 1984), piglets can
have better growth performance (Hemsworth et al., 1981;
Gonyou et al., 1986; Hemsworth et al., 1987), and gilts can
have a better conception rate (Hemsworth et al., 1986).
However, there is very little research on animal farmers’
learning.
There are reports that ability to learn often decreases with
age due to a decline in cognitive abilities. Avolio and
Waldman (1994) collected data from employed persons in
the U.S. from 1970-1984 and found a relatively sharp
decline of ability levels after the 25-34 age group, such as
numerical ability, verbal aptitude, clerical perception, finger
dexterity and general intelligence. Verhaegen and
Salthouse (1997) revealed that the measures used to
assess speed, reasoning, and episodic memory decline
significantly before 50 years of age and a greater rate of
decline thereafter. These declines in cognitive abilities will
impede the performance of skills such as spatial memory
(Salthouse, 2010, 2017; Cheke, 2016; Korman et al.,
2019).
Usually farmers tend to obtain knowledge and skills from
practical experience. Field oriented training programs are
important for them. In this way they learn by doing and do
through learning to accumulate the required abilities and
work experience. The association between work
experience and work performance is positive (McDaniel et
al., 1988; Uppal et al., 2014). Experienced workers not
only ensure efficiency in farm work but also ensure that
they are effective in what they do. However there still exists
individual differences as Uppal et al. (2014) concluded that
the individual personality factors had moderation effects
on the relationship.
It is important to provide farmers learning activities to
enhance their abilities through uptake of improved
husbandry practices and appropriate technology, to
improve their and their families’ lives, especially in this
rapidly and continually changing world. To our knowledge,
there is no in-depth analysis about the relationship
between age and experience on the animal farmers’
motivational attitudes and beliefs towards learning. With a
view to examine these aspects, research was undertaken
with the following hypotheses:
1. Farmers will gain professional knowledge and skills to
resolve problems through continuous learning
activities.
2. Farmers with less work experience prefer on-site
practical training, and those with much experience do
not.
3. Older-aged farmers have lower willingness to learn
because of lower physical and cognitive abilities.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study was an exploratory study, using a questionnaire
approach. The subject of the questionnaire was to
examine the attitudes towards learning of farmers with
different working experience and age from animal
production. During animal production conferences and
training courses organized by the Animal Division of
Innovation and Practical Training Center of National
Pingtung University of Science and Technology,
questionnaires were distributed to the participants to be
completed. The survey responses were anonymous. The
questionnaire used six-point Likert scale closed questions,
with six options from 1 (indicating strongly disagree) to 6
(indicating strongly agree). Subjects gave single answers
to better quantify the problem. Respondents were
classified into two patterns depending on their mean score.
The mean scores above 3.5 were categorized as positive,
while those below it as negative. Questionnaire data were
analyzed using the general linear model procedure (GLM)
in SAS (2004) for analysis of variance, and Duncan’s new
multiple range test used to compare differences among the
means.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A total of 1,388 questionnaires were issued and 838 were
returned, for a recovery rate was 60.4%, of which 40 were
voided due to more than half of the questions being
unanswered; therefore, 798 questionnaires were accepted
with an adjusted response rate of 57.5%. The socio-
economic characteristics of the respondents are as
follows. More than half of the respondents’ work
experience was above 6 years. Respondents’ working
time on animal farms was mainly 4-8 hours per day (41%),
followed by 9-12 hours per day (25.2%). Most respondents
were from the southern part of Taiwan, whose main
industry is animal production. Nearly one-third (32%) of
respondents’ ages were 25-34 years old, followed by 35-
44 years old (23.7%) and 45-54 years old (21.2%).
Work Experience and Learning
Results related to working experience are shown in Figure
1. Respondents whose work experience was less than 1
year were highly agreeable to attending 5-day practical
training, one to three conferences on advanced
knowledge, and inviting an expert to their farm for further
training (p<0.05). This agrees with our hypothesis 2 that
farmers with less experience prefer on-site practical
training. They also agreed that taking university extension
courses would be helpful to them, so much so that they
would review course contents at night when attending
training programs. This may be due to their being new to
the industry in order to get acquainted with the industry
sooner, so they expressed higher learning motivation.
Interestingly, those with work experience above 6 years
showed the second most agreeable attitude toward
attending one to three conferences per year. However, due
to having much more work experience, they were less
agreeable to attending practical training, or inviting an
expert to farm as necessary (p<0.05). This agrees with our

3. Effects of Age and Experience on Learning Activities for Animal Farmers
Int. J. Agric. Educ. Ext. 302
hypothesis 2 that farmers with much experience do not
prefer on-site practical training. Unsurprisingly, they had
fewer problems with work (p<0.05), due to experienced
workers had better job performance (McDaniel et al., 1988;
Uppal et al., 2014). In the present study, they agreed that
distance learning through computer was helpful, and that
they would take at least two hours per week to read
professional books or magazines (p<0.05), read
proceedings after conferences (p<0.05), and review
course contents at night when attending training programs
(p<0.05).
When encountering problems, those with work experience
with 1 to 3 years tended to discuss problems with friends
to find solutions, those with 4 to 6 years tended to find
books or magazines for answers, and those above 6 years
preferred to seek experts for help (p<0.05). Compared to
those with other work experience, those with above 6
years tended to think by themselves, because they may
have many more professional books or magazines related
to animal science or veterinary medicine (p<0.05). Those
with 1-3 and 4-6 years’ experience would find answers
from libraries or bookshops (p<0.05), while those with
above 6 years’ experience showed less willingness. Those
with less than one year’s experience highly agreed to find
solutions on the Internet in Chinese language, followed by
1-3 years, 4-6 years, and above 6 years (p<0.05).
Work Time and Learning
Learning is the most useful way in enhancing personal
capacities and gaining knowledge and skills. A Dutch study
revealed that the top 10 learning preferences for agri-food
sector did not include any formal learning simply because
of lack of time; non-formal and informal learning activities
prevailed (Lans et al., 2004). Part time working is flexible,
but Pakistani researchers (Hashmi et al., 2016) concluded
that full time working in cotton farms farmers were more
efficient than the part time working farmers. The more work
time on a farm daily, the more agreeable employees were
to attending 1-3 conferences per year as necessary
(p<0.05), and tended to agree to attending a 5-day
practical training courses as necessary. Those with work
time of 9-12 hours per day were agreeable to inviting
experts to farms for training and taking university courses
helpful to them (p<0.05). Those with work time above 12
hours have less time for learning, so they do not think
taking university courses would be helpful. Besides, they
would read professional books or magazines (p<0.01),
read proceedings (p<0.05), and review course contents
(p<0.05). This may be due to they have less time for
learning so will seize the chance for every moment to
learn, resulting in fewer problems at work (Table 1). Those
with work time less than 4 hours per day more frequently
find answers through the Chinese Internet when
encountering problems (p<0.05), English language
Internet (p<0.05), or in libraries or bookshops (p<0.05). It
may be that they have much more time to search for
information for solutions.
Age and Learning
Results related to ages are given in Table 2. Younger
workers (15-24 years old) agreed that attending a 5-day
practical training course was necessary, but those of ages
45-54 did not think so (p<0.05). In an increasingly aging
society, much more attention is paid to older persons’
education needs. Those aged above 65 highly agreed that
distance learning through computer was helpful to them
(p<0.05). This was in agreement with Guo’s (2017) study
of older adults (aged 60-85) learning computer
programming. He discovered that they were motivated to
learn to keep their brains challenged as they aged, to make
up for missed opportunities during youth, to connect with
younger family members, and to improve job prospects. In
the present study, results showed that those aged above
65 had the greatest desire to learn. Thus, our hypothesis
3 was not supported. Though physical and cognitive ability
levels of aged people will decline, it seems not affect
learning too much. A survey conducted on 1,500 employed
individuals aged 55 to 64 and found that the continuing
training motivation is quite high (Thieme et al., 2015).
Another report mentioned that ageing does not impede
academic achievement (Imlach et al., 2017).
Those aged 15-24 did not express high motivation in non-
formal and informal learning activities. This may be due to
the fact that they are still in university or just graduated
from university and are not used to learning by themselves.
Young people do not have accumulated experience and
knowledge, researchers or extension workers must help
them become aware of their needs and make the valence
on learning. Those aged 25-34 highly agreed to finding
solutions through the Chinese Internet (p<0.01), and those
aged 15-24 agreed too. Young respondents were born into
a world of technology and familiar with digital tools. They
prefer learning through searching the Chinese Internet.
From Figure 1, Tables 1 and 2, respondents showed being
less agreeable to search information through the Internet
in English to resolve problems. This may be due to
obstacles in learning English. A study conducted by Lans
et al. (2004) on work-related lifelong learning for
entrepreneurs in the agri-food sector also mentioned that
skills with regard to foreign languages (English, German,
French and Spanish) scored relatively low. The ongoing
globalization will emphasize much more on
communication in foreign languages. Learners’ motivation
has a very important role in the development of language
skills (Alizadeh, 2016). How to motivate farmers in
language learning is another question. Besides, extension
workers and government agencies should try to translate
documents and transmit advanced knowledge and skills
as soon as possible to improve the industry. Laal (2011)
stated that if countries are to see lifelong learning develop
further, then the patterns of behavior of everyone in the
industry needs to change, including employee individuals,
employers, and the providers of learning and
qualifications. Nonetheless, mean scores of learning

4. Effects of Age and Experience on Learning Activities for Animal Farmers
Lee and Hsia 303
activities and problem-solving manners were above 3.5,
our hypothesis 1 was supported by this study. Farmers
with different age and experience will gain professional
knowledge and skills and resolve problems through
continuous learning activities.
CONCLUSIONS
Most farmers agree to continuous learning and this will
improve their competencies in animal production. For
farmers with less work experience, practical training is
favorable. We found that respondents classified as longer
working hours and those with more work experience have
a much higher desire to learn. In addition, the learning
motivation of respondents above 65 years old is frequently
higher than for those in the 15-24 years old group. Though
physical condition and cognitive function decline, older-
aged farmers have higher willingness to learn. From the
study we found that farmers with different working
experience, working hours, and ages learn differently, their
needs and preferences should be taken into consideration.
Too little attention is paid to research on learning of animal
farmers. The study raises awareness of animal farmers’
learning and provides a foundation for improvements in
design of learning activities to enhance animal farmers’
participation in extension education. Also, it is important to
integrate learning into workflow and make learning
activities according to personal needs. Additional efforts
are required to address the animal farmers’ desire to learn
and for policymakers to help farmers maintain competitive
skills and knowledge through related training,
conferences, or strategies.
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APPENDIX
Figure 1. Working experience of animal production workers and their learning desire, based on a six-point Likert scale

6. Effects of Age and Experience on Learning Activities for Animal Farmers
Lee and Hsia 305
Table 1. Different working hours of animal production workers and their learning desire, based on a six-point Likert scale
Less than
4 hours
4~8 hours 9~12 hours
Above
12 hours
SEM Sig.
Attending 5-day field training is necessary 4.37 4.50 4.75 4.49 0.15 NS
Attending 1-3 conferences per year is necessary 5.09b 5.18ab 5.39ab 5.50a 0.12 *
Inviting professionals to farm is necessary 4.65 4.76 4.96 4.79 0.15 NS
Taking courses in university is helpful (not for degree) 4.63ab 4.61ab 4.81a 4.29b 0.14 *
Spending at least 2 hours per week to read books 5.03ab 4.75b 5.18a 5.35a 0.12 **
Reviewing course after seminar or training course 4.91ab 4.81b 4.99ab 5.18a 0.12 *
Reviewing course at night during training period 4.38b 4.26b 4.47ab 4.77a 0.13 *
Searching Internet in Chinese to resolve problems 5.00a 4.46b 4.77ab 4.53b 0.16 *
Searching Internet in English to resolve problems 3.16a 2.54b 2.61b 2.81ab 0.17 *
Looking for answers in library or bookstore 3.90a 3.29c 3.38bc 3.8ab 0.17 *
a~c: Means within the same row without the same superscripts differ significantly.
SEM: Standard error of mean.
Sig.: NS: P＞0.05; *: P＜0.05; **: P < 0.01.
Table 2. Animal production workers’ ages and their learning desire, based on a six-point Likert scale
15~24 25~34 35~44 45~54 55~64 Above 65 SEM Sig.
Attending 5-day field training is necessary 4.94a 4.84ab 4.40ab 4.21b 4.37ab 4.58ab 0.21 *
Attending 1-3 conferences per year is necessary 5.06 5.39 5.08 5.19 5.38 5.08 0.16 NS
Inviting professionals to farm is necessary 5.06a 5.04a 4.78ab 4.70ab 4.38b 3.33c 0.21 **
Taking courses in university is helpful (not for degree) 4.71 4.71 4.66 4.72 4.27 4.27 0.20 NS
Distance learning through computer is helpful 3.81b 4.27ab 4.57a 4.60a 4.18ab 4.64a 0.21 *
Spending at least 2 hours per week to read books 4.41b 4.90a 5.08a 5.11a 5.10a 4.83ab 0.17 *
Reviewing course after seminar or training course 4.44c 4.86bc 4.93bc 4.89bc 5.23ab 5.58a 0.17 *
Reviewing course at night during training period 3.91c 4.27bc 4.37bc 4.58b 4.50b 5.17a 0.80 *
Searching for information to resolve problems 5.00b 5.24ab 5.17ab 5.30ab 5.40ab 5.50a 0.15 *
Encountering fewer problems in work 3.22b 3.14b 3.21b 3.33b 3.76ab 4.00a 0.23 *
Discussing with friends first to resolve problems 4.78 4.76 4.72 4.56 4.80 4.25 0.19 NS
Reading textbooks first to resolve problems 4.28 4.50 4.61 4.41 4.68 4.82 0.20 NS
Reading magazines first to resolve problems 3.89 3.97 4.05 4.04 4.10 4.27 0.22 NS
Looking for experts first to resolve problems 4.66c 4.85bc 4.88bc 4.79bc 5.24ab 5.50a 0.19 *
Thinking first to resolve problems 4.63 4.57 4.65 4.54 4.84 4.64 0.20 NS
Having at least 5 reference books (not magazines) 3.41d 4.06c 4.60bc 4.56bc 4.90ab 5.50a 0.23 *
Having at least 1 magazine on animal production 3.91b 4.66ab 4.57ab 4.76a 5.08a 5.18a 0.26 *
Searching Internet in Chinese to resolve problems 4.78ab 5.20a 4.45b 4.17bc 4.18bc 3.73c 0.22 **
Searching Internet in English to resolve problems 2.28 2.94 2.81 2.42 2.44 2.36 0.24 NS
Looking for answers in library or bookstore 3.22 3.71 3.55 3.22 3.18 3.00 0.26 NS
a~d: Means within the same row without the same superscripts differ significantly.
SEM: Standard error of mean.
Sig.: NS: P＞0.05; *: P＜0.05; **: P < 0.01.
Accepted 29 January 2020
Citation: Lee HC, Hsia LC (2020). Effects of Age and Experience on Learning Activities for Animal Farmers. International
Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 6(1): 300-305.
Copyright: © 2020 Lee and Hsia. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original
author and source are cited.