This is a North Central University essay about analyzing quantitative research. The field of education neuroscience has a fundamental link to cognitive science: The brain’s ability to learn (Coch, & Ansari, 2009; Comeau, Flavell, 1979; Fleming, & Dolan, 2012; Goswami, 2006; Horvath, & Donoghue, 2016; Kolb, & Gibb, 2011; Meltzoff, Kuhl, Movellan, & Sejnowski, 2009). Research suggests the brain reshapes and changes in response to internal and external factors within environments (Kolb, & Gibb, 2011; Seitz, 2011). Due to the interconnectedness of these disciplines, data sharing of brain research would significantly improve educational practices. The essay provides an analysis of original studies based on neuroscience and cognitive science research. It is written in APA format, includes references, and has been graded by an instructor (A).

1. Running head: HAYNESOEDR8203-5
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Student: Orlanda Haynes Date: 02/20/2018
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EDR8203
Week 5 Assignment: Analyze Quantitative Research
Instructor: Dr. Bernard
Faculty Only
Analyze Quantitative Research

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The field of education neuroscience has a fundamental link to cognitive science: The
brain’s ability to learn (Coch, & Ansari, 2009; Comeau, Flavell, 1979; Fleming, & Dolan, 2012;
Goswami, 2006; Horvath, & Donoghue, 2016; Kolb, & Gibb, 2011; Meltzoff, Kuhl, Movellan,
& Sejnowski, 2009). Research suggests the brain reshapes and changes in response to internal
and external factors within environments (Kolb, & Gibb, 2011; Seitz, 2011). Due to the
interconnectedness of these disciplines, data sharing of brain research would significantly
improve educational practices. This paper provides an analysis of original studies based on
neuroscience and cognitive science research.
Author/Title (APA format)
Paulesu, E., Vallar, G., Berlingeri, M., Signorini, M., Vitali, P., Burani, C., & ... Fazio, F. (2009).
Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious: How the brain learns words never heard
before. Neuroimage, 45(4), 1368-1377. Retrieved from
file:///media/removable/Seagate%20Backup%20Plus%20Drive/AllThings/BrainLearning.pdf
ResearchProblem
While Paulesu et al. (2009) acknowledged that substantial research exists on the
functional aspects of phonological short-term memory and verbal long-term memory, they
asserted that further research was needed to understand the complexity of processes because data
regarding the prevalence of auditory vocabulary acquisition are insufficient to draw definitive
conclusions. Case in point, most anatomical data derived from brain-damaged patients do not
specifically identify what region [s] of the brain is responsible for vocabulary learning nor
provide characterization of the temporal neural responses involved with vocabulary learning.
ResearchPurpose or Intent

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The primary aim of the study was to explore and understand the brain’s memory neural
systems and to identify anatomical correlations of vocabulary learning. To achieve this, they
devised a Positron Emission Tomography experiment (PET). The design is commonly used to
study functions of the human brain.
ResearchQuestion(s)
No research question [s] were noted in the study.
Hypotheses, Null and Alternative
Ha: A significant relationship will exist between the cortical areas (identified by the
non-word learning task), the brain regions that respond dramatically to learning
processes, and the neural network of underlying vocabulary acquisition.
Ho: A non-significant relationship will exist between the cortical areas (identified by
the non-word learning task), the brain regions that respond dramatically to learning
processes, and the neural network of underlying vocabulary acquisition.
Quantitative Design
Paulesu et al. (2009) employed a PET activation experiment. The framework is a
common tool for studying relationships between structures and functions of the human brain and
the nervous system, especially processes involved with vocabulary acquisition.
Sample
Seventeen male volunteers (between the ages of 22 to 35 ) participated in the
experimental phase and an additional 10 volunteers took part in the pilot study. None of which
had any known health issues.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects

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Although most researchers do not include detailed information about how they
implemented procedures to ensure the ethical treatment of human subjects in their study
(Comeau, McDonald, & Kolb, (2010; Kolb, & Gibb, 2011; Paulesu, Vallar, Berlingeri,
Signorini, Vitali,Burani, & ... Fazio, 2009; Poline,Vandenberghe, Holmes, Friston, &
Frackowiak, 1996,Seitz, 2011), they usually follow proper research protocol as defined by
institutional review boards in the jurisdiction where the research took place, as well as adhere to
policies and procedures set forth by other governing bodies, such as education communities and
research sponsors. However, an essential rule of research is to ensure that acceptable scientific
principles are followed, including providing informed consent when human subjects are involved
and reporting findings and limitations accurately(U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, n. d.).
Method
In part, researchers used successive acquisition episodes (pronounceable strings of letters
not corresponding to any lexical entry in the Italian vocabulary [foreign language variable]) to
collect data on the acquisition of new phonological forms. Subjects were instructed to keep
their eyes closed and listen and learn 12 nonwords. Likewise, researchers asked compatible
subjects to listen and produce associated words. Measurement of subjects’ regional cerebral
blood flow was done by recording the distribution of radioactivity. The general linear model of
Statistical Parametric collected data on subjects’ patterns of brain activations and time courses of
brain activities. Using ANOVA allowed for comparison of variables and corrections for multiple
comparisons and bar graphs. Researchers also used descriptive statistic tools and a design
matrix.
Findings/Results

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Although Paulesu et al.’s (2009) findings were substantial, this analysis includes a short
list. The frequency for nonwords was 10.73, and 10.68 for words[t(23)=0.73, two-tailed, n.s.].
Thresholds for regional brain effects (word learning/rest periods)=a pb0.05 and a pb0.001. The
results showed a larger brain activation associated with nonword learning vs. word-learning.
This indicates that the brain learns words more naturally than nonwords or non-associative letters
and words. One month after the study, researchers reported that subjects’ average recalls were
5.5 for nonwords, compared to 8.7 for words. Findings also suggest that relationship exists
between brain regions involved with acquisition of vocabulary and phonological short-term
memory. In that,data showed that brain activities were heavily activated in the left hemisphere
when subjects learned new vocabularies. The data, therefore, support prior research that
highlights the relevancy of phonological proficiency in hemispheric dominance for language
acquisition.
Limitations of the Study
Researchers employed convenience sampling and seventeen sample participants. All of
which were volunteers.
ResearchDesignStrengths and Weaknesses
According to Paulesu et al.’s (2009), unlike similar studies that employs phrasal context
to isolate phonological aspect of vocabulary acquisition, they used nonwords to exclude the
contribution of syntax and morphology. And to address the validity of the learning tools and
learning outcomes, they conducted a recall session one month after the original experiment.
However, limitations of the study inhibit some data use.
Author/Title (APA format)
Poline, J., Vandenberghe, R., Holmes, A., Friston, K., & Frackowiak, R. (1996, August).

6. HAYNESOEDR8203-5 6
Regular Article: Reproducibility of PET Activation Studies: Lessons from a Multi-Center
European Experiment. EU Concerted Action on Functional Imaging. Neuroimage, 4(1), 34-54.
doi:10.1006/nimg.1996.0027
ResearchProblem
Today, PET research is used extensively to explore and understand relationships between
human brain functions and neuroanatomy. However, in Europe, 13 years earlier, Poline,
Vandenberghe, Holmes, Friston, and Frackowiak (1996) argued that replication of some results
were challenging, in part, because issues regarding reproducibility and reliability of some PET
data from European PET centers or laboratories had not been fully address. PET activation
experiments have different characteristics. In that, like qualitative designs which could employ
mixed methods, PET researchers could design their experiments using neuropsychological
components (e.g., verbal, non-verbal tasks or activities, various subject selection criteria, etc.),
data acquisition parameters (e.g., PET scanner tools, reconstruction and correction algorithms,
varying numbers of subjects scanned and scans per subject, etc.), or data analysis (e.g., statistical
analysis and image post processing). Either of which, to a greater or lesser extent, could affect
results (Poline et al., 1996).
ResearchPurpose or Intent
In 1994, through a joint venture with the European Union , Poline et al. (1996) research
team addressed some European PET laboratories issues of reproducibility and reliability by
taking part in a large scale research project that comprised of 12 PET laboratories in eight
European countries. Each laboratory conducted the same experiment using the silent verbal
fluency brain

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activation method combined with the language activation paradigm (motor and sensory tasks
have a higher accuracy reproduction rate).
ResearchQuestion(s)
Poline et al. posed the following questions:
1. How reproducible are the results from one center to another, despite differences between
centers?
2. What increase in sensitivity is obtained when pooling data and how do the results
compare with the results of analyses of data from individual centers?
3. How does the variance of this dataset partition and what are the sources of this variance?
Hypotheses, Null and Alternative
No references were cited in the study.
Quantitative Design
The research team deployed a standardized, validated cross-lingual experimental
framework which included two groups, two verbal fluency controlled tasks, and 247 scans to be
used in each task (a total of 494 were used.).
Sample
Each laboratory provided researchers with six or more participants (males [77 in total])
between 20 and 60 years old.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
As noted on page three, Poline et al. (1996) charged each laboratory with scanning six
subjects and six acquisitions per subject. These guidelines adhered to local ethics committees’
bylaws in each of the jurisdictions where the research took place.
Method

8. HAYNESOEDR8203-5 8
Cognitive tasks included generating verbs related to nouns via earphone. Researchers
instructed subjects to perform silent rest by closing their eyes and avoiding movement. After the
experiments, they collected data from 12 European laboratories within 8 countries and gathered
at a location in London to complete the analysis. Data analysis tools included, among others,
statistical parametric mapping (SPM95), ANCOVA (normalize to a mean global flow of 50
ml/100 ml/min), MANOVA, and Singular Value Decomposition.
Findings/Results
First , findings showed the levels of confidence that could be achieved and ,therefore,
should be expected from all participating laboratories. Second, data identified which prior
research studies could not be reproduced. Results indicate that high sensitivity is essential to
identifying brain activation threshold results, that reliable results can be duplicated using the
same or similar cognition protocols, and that activations of small magnitude will probably not be
statistically significant or, at most, not be duplicatible due to varying factors that could affect
analysis of sensitivities. Statistical tests, for example are not symmetrical nor does failing to
reject the null indicates absence of an effect (risk of error at 0.05). (Poline et al., 1996).
ResearchDesignStrengths and Weaknesses
Poline et al. (1996) findings addressed issues of reproducibility and reliability among
some European PET laboratories results by taking part in a large scale research project that
comprised of 12 PET laboratories in eight countries. Results showed that although researchers
conducted PET experiments at different European laboratories, replication of consistent,
reliability data could be
References

9. HAYNESOEDR8203-5 9
Coch, D., & Ansari, D. (2009). Thinking about mechanisms is crucial to connecting
neuroscience and education. Cortex: A Journal Devoted to The Study of The Nervous
System and Behavior, 45(4), 546-547. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2008.06.001
Comeau, W. L., McDonald, R. J., & Kolb, B. E. (2010). Research report: Learning-
induced alterations in prefrontal cortical dendritic morphology. Behavioural Brain
Research,
214, 91-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2010.04.033
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-
developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-11. Retrieved from
http://www4.ncsu.edu/~jlnietfe/Metacog_Articles_files/Flavell%20(1979).pdf
Fleming, S. M., & Dolan, R. J. (2012). The neural basis of metacognitive ability. Philosophical
Transactions of The Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 367(1594), 1338.
doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0417
Goswami, U. (2006). Neuroscience and education: from research to practice? Nature Reviews.
Neuroscience, 7(5), 406-411. Retrieved from
www.educationalneuroscience.org.uk/wordpress/.../Goswami-2006-neuromyths.pdf
Horvath, J. C., & Donoghue, G. M. (2016). A Bridge Too Far – Revisited: Reframing Bruer’s
Neuroeducation Argument for Modern Science of Learning Practitioners. Frontiers in
Psychology, 7, 377. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4792869/
Kolb, B., & Gibb, R. (2011). Brain Plasticity and Behaviour in the Developing Brain. Journal of
the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 20(4), 265–276. Retrieved
from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3222570/

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Meltzoff, A. N., Kuhl, P. K., Movellan, J., & Sejnowski, T. J. (2009). Foundations for a new
science of learning. Science, 325(5938), 284–288.
http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1175626
Poline, J., Vandenberghe, R., Holmes, A., Friston, K., & Frackowiak, R. (1996, August). Regular
Article: Reproducibility of PET Activation Studies: Lessons from a Multi-Center
European Experiment. EU Concerted Action on Functional Imaging. Neuroimage, 4(1),
34-54. doi:10.1006/nimg.1996.0027
Seitz, A.R. (2011). Perceptual learning: stimulus-specific learning from low-level visual
plasticity? Current Biology, 23(5), 814–815. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.01.015
Stahnisch, F. W., Nitsch, R. (2002). Santiago Ramón y Cajal's concept of neuronal plasticity:
The ambiguity lives on. Trends in Neurosciences, 25(11), 589–591. Retrieved from
http://www.academia.edu/download/45118648/Santiago_Ramon_y_Cajals_concept_one
ur20160426-8473-b8ajyv.pdf
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (n. d.). IRBs and assurances. Retrieved from
http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/assurances