Ecw 579 week 2

Course Outcome
Identify pollution sources
Characterize solid waste
Properties calculation
Layout design
Landfill design
New technology in managing solid waste
2

Open Dumping Open Dumping
Open dumping
3

Open Dumping Open Dumping
Open dumping
4

Open Dumping River
Open dumping
5

Ship Graveyard Heavy Industries
Waste
6

Definition Of Solid Waste
John T. Pfeffer
• Any solid material in the material flow pattern that is
rejected by society
T.V. Ramachandra
• The organic and inorganic waste materials produces by
society which do not carry any value to the first user
George Tchonbanoglous
• All the waste arising from human and animal activities
that are normally solid and that are discarded as useless
or unwanted
7

Solid Waste Definition
US EPA
• Any garbage, or refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment
plant, water supply treatment plant, or air pollution control
facility and other discarded material, including solid , liquid,
semi-solid, or contained gaseous material resulting from
industrial, commercial, mining, and agricultural operations,
and from community activities, but does not include solid or
dissolved materials in domestic sewage, or solid or dissolved
materials in industrial discharges
8

Public Health Effect
• Became problem due to insufficient workforce and other
constrains in deposing waste properly.
• The impact will be
• Disease vector and pathway
• Provide food and environment for thriving population of vermin
• Transmission from waste to human mostly indirectly trough insect
• Flies
• Transmit typhoid and gastro-enteritis
• Can fly 10 km
• Egg  larva  pupae  adult (only in 10 days)
• Mosquitoes
• Transmit malaria and Filariasis (a parasitic disease caused by an infection
with roundworms of the Filarioidea type)
• Breed in stagnant water
9

Public Health Effect
• Roaches
• Transmit typhoid, and cholera
• Associate with poor storage of waste
• Rodents
• Transmit plague and rat bite fever (an acute, febrile human illness caused by bacteria)
• Not sanitary landfill management so become food and shelter for rat
• Animals
• Dog, cat and pig
• Occupational Hazard
• Risk to worker which handling waste
• Infection on skin, eyes, respiratory, bone and muscles
10

Environmental Effect
• The impact will be
• Air Pollution
• Burning of waste in open dump and improper incinerator
• Produce dangerous gasses and particulate matter (Primary pollutant and
secondary pollutant)
• Water and Land Pollutant
• Result from dumping in open area and storm water
• Infiltration of rain bring pollutant to groundwater system
• Runoff from waste goes through the river
• Pollutant merge with soil particle make the land unusable
• Visual Pollutant
• The aesthetic sensibility is offended by the unsightliness of piles of waste on the
roadside plus the scavenger
• Need to increase public education
11

Environmental Effect
• Noise Pollution
• Related to the operational of waste in landfill or open dumping area
• Suitable location for landfill and open dumping area must be far from residential
area
• Odor Pollution
• Due to the presence of decaying organic (anaerobic process)
• Come from open dumping area
• Explosion Hazard
• Landfill gas contain high potion of methane
• Can migrate trough soil to other area and potential to explode
12

Malaysia Policies
•Eight Malaysia Plan 2001-2005
1. Implement initiatives and approaches via local
authorities to reduce residential waste generation
such as
a. Incentive
b. Collection fee
2. Set up a clearing House mechanism
a. To facilities symbiosis between industries
b. One industry’s waste in another resources
13

Malaysia Policies
•Nine Malaysia Plan 2006-2010
1. Implement the national strategic plan for solid waste
which emphasis on
a. Upgrading unsanitary landfill, transfer station and
integrated recovery facilities
b. 3R
c. Environmental friendly material
2. Increase awareness rising campaign and activities.
14

SWM Policies
•Vision
1. To create an integrated, comprehensive, cost
effective and sustainable solid waste management for
community focus on environmental protection,
effective technology and public health.
2. The implement of SWM through waste management
hierarchy which focus on waste reduction using 3R
concept, treat and processes and final disposal
15

35 Policies for SWM
16
2. A comprehensive, integrated, efficient, quality
and cost effective SWM services (10 policies)
1. Solid waste reduction under 3R concept (6 policies)
4. Privatization (4 policies)
3. Set up for act and legislation and institutional
(5 policies)
6. Awareness programmed and public education
(4 policies)
5. Green, cost effective and mainly for local technology
(6 policies)

Malaysia Guidelines
17
2. Garis panduan Teknikal : Penutupan Selamat Tapak
Pelupusan.
1. Garis panduan Teknikal : Rekabentuk dan Operasi
Tapak Pelupusan Sanitari
4. Garis panduan Pemisahan Sisa Pepejal.
3. Garis panduan Pelan Pengurangan Sisa Pepejal.
6. Garis panduan pelaksanaan aktiviti-aktiviti
3R di peringkat sekolah.
5. Garis panduan 3R.

Privatization of Solid Waste Management
• 1993- privatization initiated
• Privatization plan:
 Storage; Collection; Transportation; Processing & Disposal
• 4 companies: A Consortium of management companies were
given the responsibility.
1. Alam Flora Sdn.Bhd (1997) – central/eastern region (KL, Selangor,
Pahang, Terengganu & Kelantan)
2. Northern Waste Industries Sdn.Bhd. (Perak, Kedah, Penang &
Perlis)
3. Southern Waste Management (SWM) Sdn.Bhd. (N.S., Melaka &
Johor)(1996).
4. Eastern Waste Management Sdn.Bhd. (East Malaysia (Sabah,
Sarawak & Federal Territory Of Labuan).
18

•Specific tasks of the company included the
following:
• To take over the collection and disposal of solid waste
and cleaning activities of local authorities
• To employ the staff of local authorities involved in both
activities
• To take over property involved with both activities
• To take over contracts currently held by the Council.
19
Privatization of Solid Waste Management

Classification of Solid Waste
20
Sources Base
Depend on sector
and activities
Classification
Type Base
Depend on
physical, chemical
and biological
characteristics

Degradation Time For Waste
Type of Waste
Degradation
Time
Biodegradable
Paper 10 – 30 days
Cotton cloth 2 – 5 months
Woolen Items 1 years
Wood 10 – 15 years
Organic Waste A week or two
Non-
Biodegradable
Metal Product 100 – 500 years
Plastic Bag 105 years
Glass Undetermined
www.themegallery.com

Solid Waste Management (SWM)
• An operations associated with solid waste management system
• Each operation accomplishes a specific purpose in the chain of
actions require to manage the solid waste satisfactory
• Protection of environmental health
• Promoting environment quality
• Supporting the efficiency and productivity of the
economy
• Generation of employment and income
22

Solid Waste Management (SWM)
23
Waste
Generation
On Site
Handling and
Storage
Waste
Collection
Transfer and
Transport
Waste
Processing
Landfill

Factor affecting SWM System
1. Quantities and Characteristic of Waste
• Depend on the income level of family
2. Climate and seasonal variation
• Temperature, wet & dry seasons
3. Physical characteristic of an urban area
• Road system, traffics, house layout
4. Financial and foreign exchange constraint
• Equipment, vehicle, fuel & labor cost
5. Cultural constraint
• Holiday, festival, religion event
6. Management and technical resources
• Professional & skill worker
25

Management Issue in SWM Operating System
1. Setting workable but protective regulatory standard
2. Improving scientific method for interpretation of data
3. Identification of hazardous and toxic consumer product require
special waste management unit
4. Paying for waste management unit
5. Designating land disposal unit
6. Establishing and maintaining more qualified manager
26

Future Challenges and Opportunities
1. Change consumption habits in society
2. Reducing the volume of waste at the sources
3. Making landfill safer
4. Development of new technology
27

Management Issue in SWM Operating System
1. Setting workable but protective regulatory standard
2. Improving scientific method for interpretation of data
3. Identification of hazardous and toxic consumer product require
special waste management unit
4. Paying for waste management unit
5. Designating land disposal unit
6. Establishing and maintaining more qualified manager
28

Future Challenges and Opportunities
1. Change consumption habits in society
2. Reducing the volume of waste at the sources
3. Making landfill safer
4. Development of new technology
29

Municipal Solid Waste Composition
• Normal composition by weight (kg)
• 50% combustible
30
Waste Composition Percentage (%)
Organic material 40
Paper 25
Plastic 15
Wood 10
Metal 4
Textiles 3
Others 2

Waste Characteristic
31
Physical
(Density, Moisture Content, Size)
Chemical
(Lipids, Ultimate analysis,
Energy Content)
Biological
(Organic Waste Component, Odor)
Characteristics

Waste Generation
• Calculation on waste per capita (kg/person/day)
• Example
 Municipal (0.75 – 2.5)
 Industrial (0.4 - 1.6)
 Demolition (0.05 - 0.4)
 Other municipal (0.05 - 0.03)
• Commercial/ industrial (kg/employee or tones/tonne of raw product)
• Malaysia (0.4 - 1.9) –rural/urban (Johor Bharu 1.0 - 1.4)
• Estimation of Solid Waste Quantities:
 Load Count
 Mass-Volume Analysis
 Material Balance Analysis
32

Estimation of Solid Waste
• Load Count Analysis
 The number of individual load and the corresponding waste
characteristic are noted over a specific time period
 Example A
• Mass – volume analysis
 The weight and number of each load was record over specific time
period
 Example; 1 truck (20 m3) can load 3 time in a day with
correspondent to 1200 people. Each load give 500 kg, 485 kg and
630 kg of weight.
• Material Balance Analysis
 Accumulation = inflow – outflow – generation
 Example B
33

Physical Properties
1. Specific weight (density)
• Weight of SW per unit volume (kg/m3) is a critical factor
in the design of a SWM.
• density = (weight / volume)
• Density can be related to the percentage of compaction
and the level of moisture content.
• Example C
35

Physical Properties
2. Moister Content
• Critical in economic feasibility of waste treatment by incinerator
• M = [(W-d)/W] x 100
• M = moister content
• W = wet weight of sample
• d = weight of sample after drying at 1050C
 Example D
36

Physical Properties
Components
Moisture Percents (%) Density (kg/m3)
Range Typical Range Typical
Food Waste 50 – 80 70 120 – 480 290
Paper 4 – 10 6 30 – 130 85
Cardboard 4 – 8 5 30 – 80 50
Plastics 1 – 4 2 30 – 130 65
Textile 6 – 15 10 30 – 100 65
Rubber 1 – 4 2 90 – 200 130
Leathers 8 – 12 10 90 – 260 160
Garden Trimming 30 – 80 60 60 – 225 105
Wood 15 – 40 20 120 – 320 240
Misc Organics 10 – 60 25 90 – 360 240
Glass 1 – 4 2 160 – 480 195
Tin Cans 2 – 4 2 45 – 160 90
Dirt, Ashes 6 - 12 8 320 – 960 480
37
Table 1: Typical data on moisture content of MSW components

Example 2
For the waste mixture given above:
What is bulk density of the waste mixture prior to compaction?
Assume that the compaction in the cell is 600 kg/m3.
Estimate the volume reduction (%) during the compaction in landfill.
If the food and yard wastes are diverted for composting, what is the
un-compacted bulk density of the remaining waste?
40

Chemical Properties
• Important in evaluating alternative processing
and energy recovery options
1. Proximate Analysis
• Moisture
• Volatile combustible matter
• Fixed carbon
• Ash
2. Fusing Point of Ash
 Temperature to produce ash
42

Chemical Properties
3. Ultimate analysis
• Determination the proportion of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and ash
• To understand the potential of contaminant
potentially harmful to environment
• Carbon and nitrogen used to characterize waste for
composting
• Example E
43

Chemical Properties
4. Energy content
• Determination by
• Full scale boiler - calorimeter
• Lab - scale bomb
• Calculation
• Effective energy content
• MC = moisture content (%)
• Example F
44








MC
EEf wet
100
100

Chemical Properties
•Estimation using calculation
• Used modified Dulong equation
• C = % by weight carbon
• H = % by weight hydrogen
• O = % by weight oxygen
• S = % by weight sulfur
• Example G
45
  S
O
HCkgkJEnergy 95
8
1428337/ 







Chemical Properties
Component
Percentage by dry mass
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur Ash
Food Waste 48 6.4 37.6 2.6 0.4 5
Paper 43.5 6 44 0.3 0.2 6
Cardboard 44 5.9 44.6 0.3 0.2 5
Plastics 60 7.2 22.8 - - 10
Textile 55 6.6 31.2 4.6 0.15 2.5
Rubber 78 10 - 2 - 10
Leathers 60 8 11.6 10 0.4 10
Garden Trimming 47.8 6 38 3.4 0.3 4.5
Wood 49.5 6 42.7 0.2 0.1 1.5
Misc Organics 48.5 6.5 37.5 2.2 0.3 5
46
Table 2: Typical data on ultimate analysis of the combustible MSW components
Howard et al.

Chemical Properties
Components
Energy (kJ/kg)
Range Typical
Food Waste 3500 – 7000 4650
Paper 11600 – 18600 16750
Cardboard 13950 – 17450 16300
Plastics 27900 – 37200 32600
Textile 15100 – 18600 17450
Rubber 20900 – 27900 23250
Leathers 15100 – 19800 17450
Garden Trimming 2300 – 18600 6500
Wood 17450 – 19800 18600
Misc Organics 11000 – 26000 18000
Glass 100 – 250 150
Tin Cans 250 – 1200 700
Dirt, Ashes 2300 – 11650 7000
47
Table 3: Typical data on energy content of MSW components
Howard et al.

Example
Determine the chemical composition of the organic fraction of the
waste described below, with and without water
48

Solution
Since the data on chemical composition of MSW is given in terms of
dry weight, we first calculate the dry weight of the different
components of the solid waste described above; and then proceed to
calculate the fractions of different elements present.
49

Physical Transformation
51
Transformation
Process
Method Transformation Principal
Component separation Manual / mechanical separation Individual component found in
commingled municipal waste
Volume reduction Application of energy in form of
pressure or force
Reduce in volume
Size reduction Application of energy in form of
shredding, grinding or milling
Reduce in size

Chemical Transformation
53
Transformation
Process
Combustion Thermal oxidation CO2, SO2 and other oxidation
product
Pyrolysis Destructive distillation A gases stream containing variety
of gases, tar or oil
Gasification Starve air combustion A low Btu(british termal unit) gas,
a char containing carbon

Biological Transformation
55
Transformation
Process
Aerobic composting Aerobic biological conservation Compost
Anaerobic digestion
(low or high solid)
Anaerobic biological conservation CH4, CO2, digest humus or sludge
Anaerobic composting Anaerobic biological conservation CH4, CO2, digest waste

Waste Handling
• Activities associated with the handling of solid waste until
they are placed in the containers used for storage before
collection
• Can be divided into two categories
1. Domestic solid waste
• low and medium rise residential
• high rise apartment
2. Commercial & industrial solid waste
• Depend on
1. Type of waste
2. Type of collection services
57

Waste Handling
 Domestic solid waste
 low and medium rise residential
 Accumulated in and around storage container
58

Waste Handling
 Domestic solid waste
 high rise apartment
 wastes are picked up by building maintenance personnel from the
various floors and taken to the basement or service area.
 wastes usually bagged, are placed by the tenants in specially
designed vertical chutes, with opening located on each floor.
 wastes taken to the basement by tenants
59

Waste Handling
 Commercial & Industrial solid waste
• In most office and commercial buildings, solid wastes
that accumulated in individual offices or work locations
are collected in relatively large containers mounted on
rollers.
• The handling and separation of non- industrial solid
wastes at industrial facilities is the same as for
commercial facilities
60

Waste Separation
• Activities involve in determining the composition of waste by
separating into different storage
• Most effective and positive way to archive recovery and reused
of material
61

Waste Storage
1. Type of container
• Depend on:
• characteristics of SW collected
Large storage containers (flats/apartment)
Containers at curbs
Large containers on a roller (Commercial/Industrial)
• Collection frequency
• Space available for the placement of containers
• Residential; refuse bags (7 -10 liters)
• Rubbish bins; 20 - 100 liters
• Large mechanical containers - more commonly used to cut
costs (reduce labor, time , & collection costs)
• Must be standardized to suit collection equipment.
62

Waste Storage
2. Container Locations:
 side/rear of house
 alleys
 special enclosures (apartment/condos)
 basement (apts. in foreign countries)/ newer
complexes
3. Public Health:
 relates to on-time collection to avoid the spread of
diseases by vectors, etc.
4. Aesthetics:
 must be pleasing to the eye (containers must be clean, shielded from public’s view).
5. Method of Collection
 Curb side
 Centralize
 mechanical
63

High Rise Residential and Commercial Area
65

Other storage technique
68
Vacuum system

Collection
Most expensive activity
60-80 percent of total SWM costs.
Major problems:
a. Poor building layouts - e.g. squatters
b. Road congestion lead to time cost, leachate, transport
costs.
c. Physical infrastructure
d. Old containers used (leaky/ damaged)
e. Absence of systematic methods (especially at
apartments, markets with large waste volume).
70

Collection
Collections were made by:
a. Municipal/ District Council
b. Private firm under contract to municipal
c. Private firm contract with private residents
71

Collection Components
A. Collection point
 The location for collection
B. Collection frequency
 When it should be collected
C. Storage container
 The size and type
D. Collection crew
 How many people need to completely do the collection
E. Collection route
 Which route is suitable to used
F. Transfer station
 How far the location to landfill
 Is it important for material recovery
72

Collection system
• Must be optimized to save collection time and costs.
• Important to determine vehicle and labor requirements
• Activities involved 4 units:
a. Pick-up – e.g. time picking up loaded container, redeposit and
time spent driving to next container (HCS).
b. Haul – time to reach disposal site and back (h)
c. At-site (s) – time spent at disposal site (waiting and unloading)
and
d. Off-route (W)- nonproductive activities (check in/out; congestion;
repairs and maintenance (lunch/ unauthorized break).
78

Collection System
1. Haul Container System (HCS)
• Container is hauled to disposal sites, emptied, and
returned to original location or some other location
• Suitable for areas w/ higher waste generation
• Types:
• Hoist truck : 2 - 10 m3
• Tilt frame container: 10 - 40 m3 -
• Trash trailer - for heavy, bulky rubbish (construction,
commercial, usually open top container);
• 2 crew per vehicle.
79

Collection System
2. Stationary Container System (SCS)
 The container used to store waste remain at the point of
generation; except when moved to curb or other location
to be emptied.
 Types include:
Mechanically-loaded system
Manually-loaded collection vehicle(more common).
 Used for residential/commercial sites.
 Vehicle w/ internal compaction mechanism or un-
compacted (open top lorry - side loaded.
80

Pick up loaded container
Landfill
Deposit loaded container
Truck from
Dispatch station, t1
Transfer station, processing station, or disposal
Site (contents emptied), s
Haul, h
Truck to
Dispatch station,
t2
Container
Location
Drive to next container, dbc
n
1 2
Haul Container System
81

Hauled Container Systems
T hcs = (Phcs + s + a + bx)
T hcs = time per trip for HCS, h/trip
Phcs = (pc + uc + dbc) - pick up time per trip
s = at site time, h/trip
a = haul constant (h/trip)
b = haul constant (h/km)
x = round-trip distance (km/trip)
82
From table (based on speed)

Hauled Container Systems
Nd=[(1-W)H – (t1+t2)]/ (Phcs + s + a + bx);
W = off-route factor
t1 = time from garage to 1st container location
t2 = time from last container location to garage
H = working hours
83

Landfill
Pickup
Location
Transfer station, processing station, or
disposal Site, s
Drive to next pickup
location
n1 2
Empty collection Vehicles from
Dispatch station, t1
Drive loaded collection
Vehicle To disposal site, t2
Drive empty collection
To beginning of next collection
Route or return to dispatch station.
Load contents from container(s) at pickup location
into collection vehicle, uc
Stationary Container System
84

Stationary Container System (SCS)
Ct = vr / cf ( # of containers emptied/trip)
v = volume of collection vehicle, m3/trip
r = compaction ratio
c = container volume. m3/container
f = weighted container utilization factor
Nd= Vd/vr;
Nd = # of collection trips req./day, trips/d
Vd =daily waste generation rate, m3/d
Nd=[(1-W)H – (t1+t2)]/ (Pscs + s + a + bx);
H=[(t1 + t2) + Nd (Pscs + s + a + bx)]/(1-W);
85

T scs = (Pscs + s + a + bx)
Pscs = (Ctuc +(np – 1) dbc)
Ct = vr/cf - # of containers
emptied per trip (SCS)
(h/trip)
uc = average unloading
time/container, (h/container)
np = # of container pickup
locations/trip, locations/trip
dbc = average time spent driving
between Container locations,
(h/location)
Stationary Container System
(SCS)
T hcs = (Phcs + s + a + bx)
T hcs = time per trip for HCS, h/trip
Phcs = (pc+uc+dbc) - pick up time per
trip (HCS),h/trip
s = at site time, h/trip
a = haul constant (h/trip)
b = haul constant (h/km)
x = round-trip distance (km/trip)
86
HAULED CONTAINER
SYSTEM (HCS)

Speed Limit
(km/hr)
a
(hr/trip)
b
(hr/km)
88 0.016 0.011
72 0.022 0.014
56 0.034 0.018
40 0.050 0.025
87
Typical values for haul constant coefficients a and b
Collection Loading
method
Compaction
ratio (r)
Pc + uc
(h/trip)
uc
(h/container)
At site time
(s)
(h/trip)
Haul Container
System
Tilt Frame Mechanical 0.4 0.127
Tilt Frame Mechanical 2 – 4 0.4 0.133
Stationary
Container System
Compactor Mechanical 2 – 4 0.05 0.1
Compactor Manual 2 – 4 0.1
Typical values for computing equipment and labor
requirement for haul and stationary container
collection system

Lay – Out of Road
1. Prepare location maps:
 with pick-up point locations
 number of containers
 collection frequency
 estimated quantities (in the case of SCS with self-loading
compactors).
2. Data summaries:
 Estimate of waste each day (from pick-up locations)
 for SCS - number of locations for each pick-up cycle.
88

Lay – Out of Road
3. Lay preliminary collection routes (from different
stations).
 Route should connect all pick-up locations + last location be nearest to
disposal site.
4. Develop balanced route - determine haul
distance for each route
 Determine labor requirements per day, check against available work times
per day - draw master map.
89

Lay – Out of Road
• Cost effective route is to have collection vehicle travel each street only
once
• If not possible, minimize the retracing
90
Finish
Start
1
23
4

5
5
44
5
5
44
5
5
44
5
5
44
5
5
44
5
5
44
5
99
5
5
99
5
5
99
5
3
1212
3
3
1212
3
Start
Disposal
Site
91

Transfer of Solid Waste
•More common as the distance of landfill
sites becomes greater
•Most common in larger metropolitan areas.
•Variance in types, size, and degree of
sophistication
• E.g. open-air stations or enclosed in a building (newer stations).
92

Example
• The solid waste collection vehicle of Watapitae, Michjgan, is about to expire,
and city officials are in needed of advice on the size of truck they should
purchase. The compactor trucks available from a local supplier are rated to
achieve a density (DT) of 400 kg/m3 and a dump time of 6.0 minutes. In
order to ensure once-a-week pickup the truck must service 250 locations per
day. The disposal site is 6.4 km away from the collection route. From past
experience, a delay time of 13 minute can be expected. The data given in
Table 11-4 have been found to be typical for the entire city. Each stop
typically has three cans containing 4 kg each. About 10 percent of the stops
are backyard pickups. Assume that two trips per day will be made to the
disposal site. Also assume that the crew size will be two and that the
empirical equation of Tchobanoglous, Theisen, and Eliassen for a two-person
crew applies (1977). That equation is given as follows:
• t; = 0.72 + 0.18(Cn) + 0.014(PRH)
• t; = 0.72 + 0.54 + 0.14 = I .40 min/ top
• tP = 1.40 min / 60 min/h = 0.0233 h
93

Solutions
Using table 11-4 we determine the mean density of the uncompacted solid waste to be
DU = Total Mass/Total Volume = 45.4 kg / 0.429 m3 = 105.83 or 106 kg/m3
The volume per pickups is then
Vp = (3 cans) (4 kg/can) / (106 kg/m3) = 0.11 m3
The compaction ratio is determined from the densities:
r = DT / DU = (400 kg/m3) / (106 kg/m3) = 3.77
The average haul speed is determined from Figure 11-6. Because the graph is for total haul
distance, we enter with (2) (6.4) = 12.8 km and determine that s = 27 km/h. All of the other
required data were given; thus, we can use Equation 11-1. The factor of 60 is to convert
minutes to hours. For two 15-minutes breaks, B = 0.50
Vt = 0.11 / (3.77)(0.0233) * [ (8/2) – (2)(6.4)/27 – 2*13 min/60 min/h – 6 min/60min/h –
0.50/2]
The number of stops that can be handled is given by Equation 11-3:
NP = 2.74 / 0.0233 = 117.60, or 118, pickups per load
The smallest compactor truck available is one that will hold 4.0 m3. Obviously, this will be
satisfactory. However, the crew will not be able to reach the required 250 stop per day. Thus,
some other alternative must be considered. One would be to extend the workday by 30
minutes.
94

Advantages of Transfer Stations
a. Better haul roads for collection vehicles (usually paved - reducing
damages to trucks and delay).
b. Greater traffic control (avoid traffic jams/congestion or litter +
safety to children).
c. Fewer truck on the sanitary landfill haul routes (reduction
ratio of from 3 (trucks) :1 (transfer haul) or 5:1).
d. Improved landfill operating efficiency (fewer trucks mean better
traffic control).
e. Lower overall haul cost (reduction in no. of drivers/crew).
95

Key Issue in Waste Disposal
• Municipal capacities
• With the increasing of waste generation, collection of
waste get more attention than disposal.
• Political commitment
• Need effective political and government support
• Finance and cost recovery
• Represent a major investment and recurrent cost for
maintenance
• Technical guideline
• Institutional role and responsibility
• Location
• The distance for staff and transfer of waste
99

Landfill
•230 landfills in Malaysia
•Majority :crude landfills
•10 percent : with leachate treatment ponds and gas
ventilation systems
•Most :no control mechanisms and supervision.
•Steps taken to upgrade:
• Fence installation
• Weigh-bridge
• Wheel washing troughs
• Gas disposal pipes.
100

Problems
1.Pollution of ground and surface waters (indiscriminate site
selection & landfill management).
2. Risk of pollution from landfill gas in nearby properties (due to
methane) and death of vegetation due to landfill gas
(displacement of O2 by CO2).
Biodegradable wastes emit gases (e.g. methane, CO2 ,
traces of hydrogen, CO, and hydrogen sulfide).
Flammable, toxicity, asphyxiation (a condition of severely
deficient supply of oxygen to the body that arises from
abnormal breathing), and explosive hazards.
101

Problems
3. Settlement of putrescible waste:
Due to aerobic and anaerobic breakdown of
wastes/incomplete compaction.
Mostly in the first 5 years after completed.
Uneven settlement
102

Aspects to be considered
1. Site Selection
2. Landfilling Methods and operations.
3. Occurrence of gases and leachate in landfills.
4. Movement and control of landfill gases and leachate.
Leachate:
Unpleasant, odorous; contains organic matters, inorganic ions,
heavy metals. Pollutants (copper, lead, zinc, ammonium,
potassium, sodium, magnesium, iron, BOD5, COD, nitrate, and
sulphate).
103

Evaluating Potential Landfill Sites
1) Land area
• useful life (minimum 1 year).
2) Efficiency (coll. & transport)
• e.g. haul distance which impact on operating costs.
3) Soil conditions and topography
• cover material near site (costly if farther away).
4) Surface water hydrology
• impacts drainage requirements.
104

5) Geologic and hydro-geologic conditions
• for site preparation, to reduce leaching into ground &
surface waters.
6) Climatologic conditions
• wet-weather operations (rainfall may cause groundwater
contamination).
7) Local environmental conditions
• noise, dust, odor, vector, and aesthetic factors control
requirements.
105

8) Surrounding conditions
• Planning, regulations, effluent discharge points, access roads,
buffer zones (green belts), housing, public facilities,
availability of power, and water supplies.
9) Ultimate use of site
• affects long term management for site.
106

Classification of Landfill Types
a) Anaerobic Landfill
b) Anaerobic Sanitary Landfill with Daily Cover
c) Improved Anaerobic Sanitary Landfill with Buried Leachate
Collection Pipes
d) Semi-aerobic Landfill with Natural Ventilation and Leachate
Collection Facilities
e) Aerobic Landfill with Forced Aeration
107

a) Anaerobic Landfill
108

b) Anaerobic Sanitary Landfill with Daily Cover
109

c) Improved Anaerobic Sanitary Landfill with Buried
Leachate Collection Pipes
110

d) Semi-aerobic Landfill with Natural Ventilation and
Leachate Collection Facilities
111

e) Aerobic Landfill with Forced Aeration
112

Landfill Method
1. Trench / Excavated cell
• The most cost effective and manageable system for small
communities
• The principle benefits:
• The working area can be to a manageable size
• The waste can be compacted and buried adequately
without specialized waste compaction system
• it recommended that a number of trench be open at one
time
• Wet and dry waste are buried in separate trench
113

Landfill Method
• Key Criteria
• Recommended trench size is 50 m long, 2.5 deep and at
least 6 m wide
• Maximum layer depth is 1 m
• Minimum cover depth is 150 mm
114

Landfill Method
2. Area
• Usually contain solid waste above the existing ground level
• The active face of the fill body face the prevailing wind to
minimize blown litter
• Require that waste be deposit on land and then spread and
compacted
117

Landfill Method
• Maximum waste height of 2 meter
• Minimum daily cover of 150 mm
118

Landfill Method
3. Canyon / depression
• Use existing topography
• May involve excavation
121

Target Lifespan
• The target lifespan shall be the designed operational
duration of the landfill site and should be set at
approximately 10 to 15 years of operations.
• considerations must be given towards finding a suitable site,
carrying out financial analysis and determining the
construction schedule of the landfill
• in order to prevent excessive build up of waste, it is
recommended to provide some reserve margin or buffer in
the plan so that the life span of landfill may be increased by
a further 10-year period
124

Designed Landfill Capacity
• The Designed Landfill Capacity (DLC) shall be determined by
calculating the product of the sum of planned Annual
Designed Landfill Volume(ADLV) and Cover Material Volume
(CMV) per year, by the number of years that the landfill is to
be operated.
DLC [m3] = (ADLV [m3/year] + CMV [m3/year])
x target lifespan [year]
125

• The Annual Designed Landfill Volume (ADLV) shall be
determined by dividing the Annual Designed Landfill Weight
(ADLW) by the specific weight (SWW) (or weight per unit
volume) of the solid waste that is landfill and compacted.
ADLV [m3/year] = ADLW [ton/year] / SWW [ton/m3]
126
Type of Waste Range (kg/m3) Typical (kg/m3)
Normally Compacted 362 - 498 450
Well Compacted 590 - 742 600
Typical Specific Weight of Landfill Waste

Example A1
• Calculate the Annual Designed Landfill Volume (ADLV) in 2001
to 2003 if :
• Increase in the generation rate per capita = 2% per year.
• Increase in population = 4% per year.
• Increase in the generation rate for commercial and institutional = 8% per
year
2001 2002 2003
• Sample population 500 K
• Service coverage 70% 75% 80%
• Generation rate of domestic
waste (kg/capita/day) 0.91
• Commercial and institutional
waste (ton/day) 50
127

• The Cover Material Volume (CMV) shall be determined by
dividing the Annual Designed Cover Material Weight (ADCMW)
by the specific weight (SWCM) (or weight per unit volume) of
Cover Material which is landfilled and compacted.
CMV [m3/year] = ADCMW [ton/year] / SWCM [ton/m3]
128

Example A2
•Calculate the Cover Material Volume (CMV) in 2001 to
2003 if :
• Type of cover material used = clay soil
• Specific weight = 550 kg/m3
• Thick of cover material in every layer = 150 mm
129

Sanitary Landfill
• Confining waste to smallest practical area, reducing it to smallest
practical volume and covering it with a layer of compacted soil at the
end of each day of operation
• A proper sanitary landfill must be provided with all the necessary
facilities in order for the system to function effectively. The
supporting and ancillary facilities must be integrated with the core
facilities to form the Sanitary Landfill System.
130

Sanitary Landfill
Advantages
• The initial capital investment is
lower
• Low costs of operation and
maintenance
• can receive all types of municipal
solid wastes
• generates employment for
unskilled laborers
• can be used for the construction of
parks, recreational areas, or sports
fields.
Disadvantages
• Strong opposition from the public
• Construction must constantly be
supervised
• Become an open dump if municipal
administrators are reluctant to
invest in operation and
maintenance
• Contamination of nearby surface
and groundwater
• significant settlement
133

Sanitary Landfill System
• Level 1:
Controlled tipping
• Level 2:
Sanitary landfill with a bund and daily cover soil
• Level 3:
Sanitary landfill with leachate recirculation system
• Level 4:
Sanitary landfill with leachate treatment facilities
134

• Level 1
The level 1 is the lowest level to be adopted by any a
sanitary landfill system. Basically waste is just dumped on
the landfill in a controlled manner and levelled. Soil cover
should be laid periodically.
• Level 2:
The level-2 sanitary landfill shall be provided with the solid
waste retaining structure, clearly defined cells and surface
water drainage. The soil cover shall be provided daily.
135

• Level 3
The level-3 is an improvement to the level 2 sanitary landfill
by the provision of leachate collection and recirculation
system. The leachate collected through a series of collection
pipes will be recirculated back to the waste layer so that it
may be reprocessed and further decompose to improve
leachate quality. Recirculation will also promote faster
evaporation and thus reducing the quantity of the effluent.
137

• Level 4:
The level-4 is an improvement to the level 3 sanitary landfill
by the provision of the leachate treatment facilities and liner
system. The liner system will act as barriers to provide
sealing function by preventing the leachate from penetrating
deeper into the ground. The leachate will flow to the
collection pipes and diverted to the leachate retention pond
for further treatment. Aerators or air diffusers will be
provided to enhance and hasten the treatment process for
the effluent to be discharged.
139

Facilities Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
Soil Cover + ++ ++ ++
Embankment ++ ++ ++
Drainage facility ++ ++ ++
Gas venting ++ ++ ++
Leachate collection ++ ++
Leachate re-circulation ++ ++
Leachate treatment ++
Liners ++
Semi-aerobic
141
Note: + To be provided periodically.
++ To be provided daily.

Leachate
• Landfill leachate is comprised of the soluble components of
waste and the soluble intermediates and products of waste
degradation which enter water as it percolates through the
waste body.
• Main pollutant is BOD up to 100000 mg/l
• Others are organic and inorganic compounds
• The amount of leachate generated is dependent on :
- water availability
- landfill surface conditions
- solid waste conditions
• Estimation using 2D model named Hydrological Evaluation of
Landfill Performance (HELP) -
142

Leachate Management
• Objective : prevent migration of leachate
• Leachate directed to low points at bottom of landfill through a drainage
system at floor
• Perforated pipes at the low points collect leachate
• Gravity flow or pumping
• Store temporarily in tanks or impoundment
• Important in wet climate
143

Leachate Treatment
Kind of Landfill Wastes Targets of Leachate Treatment
Organic-rich Waste
(Mixed Waste,
Combustible Waste)
high-BOD, COD, NH4
+, Mn2
+, Color, Odor
Non-Combustible Waste low-BOD, COD, NH4
Ash, Dust
Ca2
+, low-BOD, COD, NH4
+-N, Heavy
Metals
146

Gases Production
• Quantities : need to establish peak and cumulative yield
• Mathematic and computer models available
• EPA model : LandGem
• The estimation base on:
• gas yield per unit weight about 1000 m3/tonne
• Lag time prior to production
• Shape of gas production curve over time
• Duration of gas production
148

Gas Management
• Gas flows along paths of least resistant
• Uncontrolled : via sewer, basement, sand layer
• Control : proper design collection system
• Passive collection
• Vent pipe to direct gas out of landfill
• Depth of a few meter to 75% of landfill depth
• Active extraction
• Vent pipe system connected to vacuum pump
149

Cover Soil
•Cover soil at the landfill site plays important
roles in sanitation, fire prevention, reduction
of leachate volume, odor and vermin control.
a. Daily Cover Soil
• When a landfill layer has reached its specified thickness or
when one day's portion of the landfilling works is completed.
• permeable and porous sand types
• 15 – 50 cm
152

Cover Soil
b. Intermediate Cover Soil
• Intermediate cover soil is laid as the landfill works
progress. The function is more on providing
foundation for roads for the collection vehicles as
well as draining the rainwater away from the landfill
sites which are to be left for considerably long
period.
• Clayey soil or crusher stone
• 50 cm
153

Cover Soil
c. Final Cover Soil
• When all the overall landfilling works have
completed in a landfill site, final cover soil is laid on
the top of the landfilled waste layers. The types and
thickness of final cover soil depends on the planned
usage of the completed landfill site.
• shall be resistant to corrosion by rainwater, low
permeability and suitable for plants.
• 50 cm to 1 m
154

Alternative Cap
• Capillary barrier
• Composite cover
• Single barrier cover
• Expose geo-membrane cover
• Water balance soil cover
155

Integrated Solid Waste Management
Selection and application of suitable
technique, technologies and
management programs to achieve
specific waste management goals and
objectives
156

The word “R”
• In waste management, R can be define as
a. Reduce
b. Reuse
c. Recycling
d. Rethink
e. Reproduce
f. Remake
• Which is require the cooperation from all stakeholder.
160

Malaysia’s Situation
• Half of garbage can be recyclable (30% Papers/
newspapers).
• Within one month (Malaysia):
• 43,000 tonnes – plastics
• 57,000 tonnes– papers
• 8,000 tonnes – glass
• We recycle about 0.006 – 3.74 % of total recyclable SW.
• Composting – Miniscule (only organic farms) in production
of organic fertilizers (a loss about 35-64% of total volume in
organic matter)
161

Malaysia Situation
• Waste in KL can fill KL Twin Towers in just 9.5 days.
• Johor Bahru produce 1300 tonnes/ day just take 3 days to fill
the entire length of the Johor Causeway
• Expected to increase by 2% every year
• 11 November as National Recycling Day each year to
generate an interest among Malaysians to recycle.
162

Important of Recycling
1. Lack of space
 To find suitable sites for landfills, pollution, hygiene and
other issues must be considered;
 most available land left in the country is not suitable at all.
2. Water pollution
 Most land areas in our country are water catchments areas.
 Toxic leachate from decomposing waste will pollute our
water supplies.
3. Air pollution
 Natural decomposition - methane gas and sulphur.
 Foul smell, air pollution and global warming.
163

Important of Recycling
4. Compromising health
 Exposure to diseases.
 Rats, flies and cockroaches – vectors and vermin.
5. Product reused
 Reduce the amount of material that are to be manage as
waste
6. Material volume reduction
 Control the waste generated and disposal
7. Toxicity reduction
 Reduce the adverse environmental impact
8. Increase product lifetime
9. Decrease consumption
164

Implementation
1. Education and research
 Education trough syllabus and circular in school, collage and university
 Research by universities with a collaboration with government and NGO’s
 Exploring and developing funding sources
 Developing media campaign for public
2. Financial incentives and disincentive
 Linking to economic benefit
 Tax credit or exemption
 Variable waste disposal charges for garbage collection
 Product disposal charge can be assessed on the producer at the time of
manufacture or on the consumer at the time of purchase
3. Regulation
 Quantity control regulation
 Product design regulation
165

How to recycle? How recycle process?
1. Bundle newspaper
and books separately
2. Open cardboard
boxes and flatten
3. Bundle neatly
4. into blue recycling
bins or bring to a
collection center
1. Old newspaper and outdated magazines are
collected - brought to the mill.
2. Sent to a pulping process, where it is mixed
with water and chemical, to aid in re-
slushing, before being cleaned to remove
large contaminants. The pulp is then de-
inked before further cleaning, screening and
brightening.
3. Water is then added to the pulp. This
mixture is then pumped into the wet end of
the paper-making machine. The paper is
then smoothed by soft calendaring before
being wound up into large jumbo rolls.
4. The jumbo rolls are then cut into various roll
widths, depending on customer
requirements.
Paper
166

1. Remove leftover contents,
caps, any plastic or metal
appendages and labels
2. Clean and dry bottles or
jars
3. Throw into brown
recycling bins or bring to a
collection center
a. Glass will be separated by color. The color will
remain when the glass is melted.
b. Once the glass is color-sorted and cleaned -
crushed and added to other raw materials to make
new glass. These ingredients are heated - melt into
a soft liquid. The hot molten glass is pressed and
blown into moulds where it forms bottles and jars.
c. The new containers are cooled and checked for
flaws. Finally they are shipped to companies
where they are filled with foods and beverages.
Glass
168

1. Remove leftover
contents
2. Clean and dry cans
or tins
3. Throw into orange
recycling bins or
bring to a collection
center
1. Collection from recycling bins - crushed
for easy transportation to a recycling
center.
2. Melted to remove all contamination and
convert the old aluminum into new
products.
3. Made into new products.
4. Recycling aluminium can saves a lot of
energy than recycling other materials, like
paper. Excessive energy is used to dig up
or mine bauxite(aluminum ore) – simpler.
Aluminium
170

1. Remove leftover
contents/ caps
2. Clean and dry plastic
bottles/ dirty bags
3. Throw into orange
recycling bins or
bring to a collection
center
1. Collection from the bins and other
places - brought to the recycling center
2. Separated according to categories
3. A pretty simple process - will be
grounded into small flakes of about 1 cm
in size - then washed to remove any dirt
or residue. The clean flakes - dried in a
stream of hot air
4. The flakes - boxed and sold off in that
form or are made into new materials.
Plastic
172

Ecw 579 week 2

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