This document describes research on using an electronic nose system with multiple metal oxide gas sensors and artificial neural networks to detect the early stages of fires from various sources. Time series data was collected from 12 different fire sources over multiple repetitions. Analysis using backpropagation neural networks achieved 99.6% correct classification of fire sources from full time series data, while k-means clustering achieved 98.3% correct classification. The electronic nose system was able to reliably detect various fire sources earlier than conventional smoke detectors.
Oxygen Excess Control of Industrial Combustion Through The Use of Automotive ...drboon
The objective of this study is to present a simple and low cost method of determining the flue gases oxygen concentration. The method makes use of the Lambda sensor, a part of the fuel injection system of the modern automobile’s engine. A combustion chamber was mounted with a heated Lambda sensor installed in its chimney. Residual oxygen concentrations in the flue gases were estimated by the use of the Nernst equation and compared to a reference combustion analyser. The observed average deviation in the measurements was of about 5 % which is in the range of interest to the industrial combustion.
This document describes a study that measured the enthalpy of combustion (heat released) of methane using a high-precision gas combustion calorimeter. Key points:
- The calorimeter was based on designs from previous studies in 1931 and 1972 that reported the most accurate values for methane combustion enthalpy.
- Modern equipment and automated data collection were used to measure an enthalpy of combustion value of 890.61 kJ/mol for methane with a precision of 0.21 kJ/mol.
- The value aligned closely with the average from previous studies, providing additional validation of the experimental method and results.
Combustion reactions involve the release or absorption of energy as heat during chemical reactions where products are formed from reactants. A combustion reaction is a chemical reaction where oxygen reacts with a fuel, such as hydrogen, carbon or hydrocarbons, to generate heat and reaction products such as carbon dioxide and water. Stoichiometric coefficients in chemical equations represent equal amounts of each chemical element on both sides of the equation. The air-fuel ratio refers to the ratio of air to fuel, either by mass or moles, involved in a combustion reaction. The theoretical air is the minimum amount of air needed for complete combustion of fuel.
Practical Issues of Combustion Oxygen Measurement Specifically Related to NOx...Arjay Automation
Power plants concerned with lowering NOx emissions are making tremendous changes to accommodate EPA regulatory requirements. A substantial number of these changes include the expansion and upgrade of the plant combustion oxygen measurement equipment. There is a striking relationship between the number of NOx reductions projects and the sales quantity of insitu oxygen detectors. The reason is that power plant betterment groups, operators, boiler manufacturers and engineering firms understand the direct relationship between NOx and excess air in the combustion process.
An area of daily practical importance to boiler operators and I&C teams are the common problems with insitu oxygen measurements. This paper focuses on the practical issues of combustion oxygen measurement as they relate to specifically to fuel usage and NOx emissions.
Read the entire white paper, courtesy of Yokogawa Corporation of America here.
Combustion reactions involve the release or absorption of energy as heat during chemical reactions where products form from reactants. A combustion reaction between fuel and oxygen releases heat. Stoichiometric coefficients in chemical equations represent equal amounts of each chemical element on both sides of the equation. The air-fuel ratio refers to the ratio of air to fuel, either by mass or moles. The theoretical air is the minimum amount of air needed for complete combustion of carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur in the fuel. Analysis of exhaust and flue gases can be done through wet analysis including steam or using an Orsat apparatus. Enthalpy of formation is the change in enthalpy when a compound forms from its elements in their standard states.
Monitoring Industrial Combustion Through Automotive Oxygen Sensordrboon
The monitoring of oxygen percentage in flue gases is one of various ways of controlling efficiency and emissions of industrial combustion. In general, flue gases analyzers are expensive and not accessible to small scale industries. The automotive Lambda sensor is an oxygen sensor which controls the electronic injection of the modern internal combustion vehicles. The aim of this study is to present two methods of measuring the oxygen concentration in flue gases of industrial combustion by the use of the automotive Lambda sensor. One method uses the voltage signals of a heated Lambda sensor and the other one uses the Current Reversal Mode (CRM) of operation of such sensor. Results presented in this article show that such methods are effective to control industrial combustion.
05 part2 steady flow analysis of reacting mixturesgunabalan sellan
This document discusses steady flow analysis of reacting mixtures. It defines adiabatic combustion and flame temperature as a combustion process without heat loss or gain, where the maximum temperature achieved is referred to as the adiabatic flame temperature. The maximum temperature occurs during stoichiometric combustion. Excess air is used to control the temperature. Conservation of mass and energy principles are used to calculate the adiabatic flame temperature. The second law of thermodynamics and concept of entropy are also discussed for open systems involving chemical reactions.
Flue gas analisys in industry-Practical guide for Emission and Process Measur...Testo Azerbaijan
Flue gas analisys in industry-Practical guide for Emission and Process Measurements
-Power generation
-Waste disposal
-Stone and clay industry
-Metal industry
-Chemical/petrochemical industry
Oxygen Excess Control of Industrial Combustion Through The Use of Automotive ...drboon
The objective of this study is to present a simple and low cost method of determining the flue gases oxygen concentration. The method makes use of the Lambda sensor, a part of the fuel injection system of the modern automobile’s engine. A combustion chamber was mounted with a heated Lambda sensor installed in its chimney. Residual oxygen concentrations in the flue gases were estimated by the use of the Nernst equation and compared to a reference combustion analyser. The observed average deviation in the measurements was of about 5 % which is in the range of interest to the industrial combustion.
This document describes a study that measured the enthalpy of combustion (heat released) of methane using a high-precision gas combustion calorimeter. Key points:
- The calorimeter was based on designs from previous studies in 1931 and 1972 that reported the most accurate values for methane combustion enthalpy.
- Modern equipment and automated data collection were used to measure an enthalpy of combustion value of 890.61 kJ/mol for methane with a precision of 0.21 kJ/mol.
- The value aligned closely with the average from previous studies, providing additional validation of the experimental method and results.
Combustion reactions involve the release or absorption of energy as heat during chemical reactions where products are formed from reactants. A combustion reaction is a chemical reaction where oxygen reacts with a fuel, such as hydrogen, carbon or hydrocarbons, to generate heat and reaction products such as carbon dioxide and water. Stoichiometric coefficients in chemical equations represent equal amounts of each chemical element on both sides of the equation. The air-fuel ratio refers to the ratio of air to fuel, either by mass or moles, involved in a combustion reaction. The theoretical air is the minimum amount of air needed for complete combustion of fuel.
Practical Issues of Combustion Oxygen Measurement Specifically Related to NOx...Arjay Automation
Power plants concerned with lowering NOx emissions are making tremendous changes to accommodate EPA regulatory requirements. A substantial number of these changes include the expansion and upgrade of the plant combustion oxygen measurement equipment. There is a striking relationship between the number of NOx reductions projects and the sales quantity of insitu oxygen detectors. The reason is that power plant betterment groups, operators, boiler manufacturers and engineering firms understand the direct relationship between NOx and excess air in the combustion process.
An area of daily practical importance to boiler operators and I&C teams are the common problems with insitu oxygen measurements. This paper focuses on the practical issues of combustion oxygen measurement as they relate to specifically to fuel usage and NOx emissions.
Read the entire white paper, courtesy of Yokogawa Corporation of America here.
Combustion reactions involve the release or absorption of energy as heat during chemical reactions where products form from reactants. A combustion reaction between fuel and oxygen releases heat. Stoichiometric coefficients in chemical equations represent equal amounts of each chemical element on both sides of the equation. The air-fuel ratio refers to the ratio of air to fuel, either by mass or moles. The theoretical air is the minimum amount of air needed for complete combustion of carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur in the fuel. Analysis of exhaust and flue gases can be done through wet analysis including steam or using an Orsat apparatus. Enthalpy of formation is the change in enthalpy when a compound forms from its elements in their standard states.
Monitoring Industrial Combustion Through Automotive Oxygen Sensordrboon
The monitoring of oxygen percentage in flue gases is one of various ways of controlling efficiency and emissions of industrial combustion. In general, flue gases analyzers are expensive and not accessible to small scale industries. The automotive Lambda sensor is an oxygen sensor which controls the electronic injection of the modern internal combustion vehicles. The aim of this study is to present two methods of measuring the oxygen concentration in flue gases of industrial combustion by the use of the automotive Lambda sensor. One method uses the voltage signals of a heated Lambda sensor and the other one uses the Current Reversal Mode (CRM) of operation of such sensor. Results presented in this article show that such methods are effective to control industrial combustion.
05 part2 steady flow analysis of reacting mixturesgunabalan sellan
This document discusses steady flow analysis of reacting mixtures. It defines adiabatic combustion and flame temperature as a combustion process without heat loss or gain, where the maximum temperature achieved is referred to as the adiabatic flame temperature. The maximum temperature occurs during stoichiometric combustion. Excess air is used to control the temperature. Conservation of mass and energy principles are used to calculate the adiabatic flame temperature. The second law of thermodynamics and concept of entropy are also discussed for open systems involving chemical reactions.
Flue gas analisys in industry-Practical guide for Emission and Process Measur...Testo Azerbaijan
Flue gas analisys in industry-Practical guide for Emission and Process Measurements
-Power generation
-Waste disposal
-Stone and clay industry
-Metal industry
-Chemical/petrochemical industry
An experimental and kinetic study of syngas-air combustion at elevated temper...Saad Tanvir
This document describes an experimental study of syngas combustion at elevated temperatures and the effect of adding water. Laminar flame speeds of syngas/air mixtures were measured over a range of fuel compositions, equivalence ratios, and preheat temperatures. The measured flame speeds were compared to simulations from existing chemical kinetic models, showing reasonable agreement at room temperature but large discrepancies at higher temperatures. Water was added to two syngas fuels up to 40% by volume, and different effects on flame speed were observed depending on the fuel composition and water concentration, related to competing chemical and physical impacts of water addition.
This document describes an experimental study on the effect of hydrogen blending on burning velocity for different fuels. The study involved:
- Designing a constant volume combustion chamber and instrumentation to measure laminar burning velocity and flame speed.
- Investigating the impact of equivalence ratio, initial pressure, and hydrogen blending ratio on burning velocity and other combustion parameters for LPG-air and hydrogen-LPG-air mixtures.
- Developing empirical correlations between studied variables using a FORTRAN program to calculate mixture properties.
Results showed that hydrogen blending increased adiabatic flame temperature and burning velocity. Burning velocity increased with higher equivalence ratios and hydrogen percentages, but decreased with initial pressure. Experimental data agreed well with previous
Thermal Simulation of Biogas Plants Using Mat LabIJERA Editor
The major prerequisite for the optimum production of methane from a biogas plant is the sustenance of digester temperature within the narrow limits (300C-350C). It is experimentally investigated that, the MIT biogas plant is not maintaining optimum temperature, this decreases the efficiency and increases the detention time for charge. To maintain the plant in optimum temperature, it is necessary to find out the heat losses from the biogas plant and the external energy inputs need to operate the plant. Rate of gas yield, and the detention time (time necessary to anaerobically digest organic wastes) in a biogas reactor, are favorable functions of the temperature in the digester. A thermal simulation for MIT biogas plant has developed using matlab in order to understand the heat transfer from the slurry and the gas holder to the surrounding earth and air respectively. The computation has been performed when the slurry is maintained at 200C and 300C, optimum temperature of anaerobic fermentation. If the slurry is considered to be at 350C, the optimum temperature of anaerobic fermentation, the total heat loss from the plant is higher than the heat loss when the slurry is maintained at 200C. The heat calculations provide an appraisal for the heat which has to be supplied by external means to compensate for the net heat losses which occur if the slurry is to be maintained at 350C. A solar system with auxiliary electric heater is designed for maintaining the slurry at 350C.In conclusion; the results of thermal analysis are used to define a strategy for operating biogas plant at optimum temperatures.
Comparison of Calorific Values of Various Fuels from Different Fuel Stationsresearchinventy
Current research takes in to account of calorific value of various fuel (Diesel) available in the state of Telangana (India). The purpose of this experiment is to determine the heat of combustion for diesel and to learn basic bomb procedures. This experiment will be accomplished by using an adiabatic bomb calorimeter. The fuel sold by different company show different calorific value; by finding out the change in the calorific we can find out the high quality fuel available in the market. This research had covered the importance of calorific value of different fuel (diesel) with the help of a case study from Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology
Exergetic efficiency analysis of hydrogen–air detonation in pulse detonation ...BBIT Kolkata
Exergy losses during the combustion process, heat transfer, and fuel utilization play a vital role in the analysis of the
exergetic efficiency of combustion process. Detonation is thermodynamically more efficient than deflagration mode of
combustion. Detonation combustion technology inside the pulse detonation engine using hydrogen as a fuel is energetic
propulsion system for next generation. In this study, the main objective of this work is to quantify the exergetic efficiency
of hydrogen–air combustion for deflagration and detonation combustion process. Further detonation parameters are
calculated using 0.25, 0.35, and 0.55 of H2 mass concentrations in the combustion process. The simulations have been
performed for converging the solution using commercial computational fluid dynamics package Ansys Fluent solver. The
details of combustion physics in chemical reacting flows of hydrogen–air mixture in two control volumes were simulated
using species transport model with eddy dissipation turbulence chemistry interaction. From these simulations it was
observed that exergy loss in the deflagration combustion process is higher in comparison to the detonation combustion
process. The major observation was that pilot fuel economy for the two combustion processes and augmentation of
exergetic efficiencies are better in the detonation combustion process. The maximum exergetic efficiency of 55.12%,
53.19%, and 23.43% from deflagration combustion process and from detonation combustion process, 67.55%, 57.49%,
and 24.89%, are obtained from aforesaid H2 mass fraction. It was also found that for lesser fuel mass fraction higher
exergetic efficiency was observed.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF POROUS RADIANT BURNER AN...BIBHUTI BHUSAN SAMANTARAY
This paper presents the heat transfer characteristics of a
self-aspirating porous radiant burner (SAPRB) that operates
on the basis of an effective energy conversion method between
flowing gas enthalpy and thermal radiation. The temperature
field at various flame zones was measured experimentally by
the help of both FLUKE IR camera and K-type thermocouples.
The experimental setup consisted of a two layered domestic
cooking burner, a flexible test stand attached with six K-type
thermocouples at different positions, IR camera, LPG setup
and a hot wire anemometer. The two layered SAPRB consisted
of a combustion zone and a preheating zone. Combustion zone
was formed with high porosity, highly radiating porous
matrix, and the preheating zone consisted of low porosity
matrix. Time dependent temperature history from
thermocouples at various flame zones were acquired by using
a data acquisition system and the temperature profiles were
analyzed in the ZAILA application software environments. In
the other hand the IR graphs were captured by FLUKE IR
camera and the thermographs were analyzed in the
SMARTView software environments. The experimental results
revealed that the homogeneous porous media, in addition to
its convective heat exchange with the gas, might absorb, emit,
and scatter thermal radiation. The rate of heat transfer was
more at the center of the burner where a combined effect of
both convection & radiation might be realized. The maximum
thermal efficiency was found to be 64% which was having a
good agreement with the previous data in the open literature.
The document discusses two main types of oxygen analyzers: zirconia and paramagnetic. Zirconia analyzers work by generating a voltage based on the difference in oxygen concentration between a process gas and reference gas in contact with a zirconia element. Paramagnetic analyzers detect oxygen concentration based on the displacement of a dumbbell in a magnetic field caused by oxygen's paramagnetic properties. The document also provides details on calibrating, testing, and maintaining zirconia oxygen analyzers.
The heating value, also known as the calorific value or energy value, is the amount of heat released during the combustion of a fuel. It is measured in units of energy per unit of the substance, such as kJ/kg. The higher heating value takes into account the latent heat of vaporization of water in the combustion products, while the lower heating value does not. Heating values are commonly determined through the use of a bomb calorimeter.
The document describes a carbon footprint analysis project conducted by a student team. It includes an introduction to carbon footprints and their calculation. The team analyzed factors that influence individual carbon footprints, including household size and characteristics, home features, and energy usage habits. Experimental designs were used to analyze the relationship between these factors and carbon footprint values. The analyses found that the number of bedrooms significantly impacted carbon footprints, while steps taken to heat and cool homes did not have a significant effect. The randomized block design found no interaction between household type and number of bedrooms.
This is a lecture is a series on combustion chemical kinetics for engineers. The course topics are selections from thermodynamics and kinetics especially geared to the interests of engineers involved in combusition
The document discusses energy performance assessment of boilers. It defines key terms like boiler efficiency and evaporation ratio. It describes standards for boiler testing from British, ASME, and Indian standards. It then explains the direct and indirect methods for testing boiler efficiency, including measuring inputs of fuel, air, and outputs of steam. Instruments used for assessment are also outlined. Formats for collecting boiler specifications and performance data are provided. The document calculates boiler efficiency using an example and discusses factors affecting boiler performance.
Optimizing Bunsen burner Performance Using CFD AnalysisIJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
This document discusses key thermodynamic concepts related to combustion processes, including:
1) Heat of combustion, flame temperature, enthalpy of combustion systems, and equilibrium constants of combustion reactions are the major thermodynamic functions that influence fuel utilization.
2) Heat of combustion represents the potential heat of a fuel and can be used to calculate calorific value. Enthalpy is the heat content of a system at constant pressure.
3) Flame temperature depends on the fuel-oxidant mixture and ranges from theoretical to actual temperatures. The maximum adiabatic flame temperature occurs at slightly excess stoichiometry.
Energy performance assessment of boilersUtsav Jain
The document discusses performance testing of boilers. It describes various factors that affect boiler performance over time such as poor combustion, heat transfer fouling, and deteriorated fuel and water quality. Boiler efficiency testing is important to evaluate how efficiency changes from the design value and identify problems. The direct method and indirect method of testing are described. The indirect method involves calculating different heat losses in the boiler system to determine efficiency. Various measurements, instruments, test conditions and computational procedures for conducting boiler performance tests are outlined.
In this work, thermal characterization of centrifuged aromatic citrus oils was studied using thermal lens (TL) and open photoacoustic cell (OPC). The thermal diffusivity (D) was obtained by TL, fitting the critical time parameter of the experimental curves to the theoretical values. An experimental arrangement of non-matched mode lasers with a probe laser and an excitation lasers was used. On the other hand, the thermal effusivity (e) of the samples was obtained by using OPC. The thermal conductivity (k) was calculated from the
relationship between D and e. The thermal parameters obtained were compared with the theoretical values in the literature. UV-vis spectroscopy, Attenuated Total ReflectanceFourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) were used to determine the absorption coefficients and chemical structure of the citrus oils. The importance of this research work was the determination of the thermal parameters of essential oils as an alternative technique for quality control application.
The understanding of gas geochemical model to reduce the exploration uncertaintyRizal Abiyudo
The various fumaroles areas in the prospect are can be modelled by boiling depletion model and the relation between each of fumaroles. Geothermal waters would boil to create a first set of fumaroles and then the boiled, gas-depleted water outflows to the site of a second set of fumaroles where it boils again, creating fumaroles with gas-depleted chemistry.
Analysis of Natural Gas Composition and BTU Content from Fracking OperationsJennifer Maclachlan
This document discusses analyzing the composition and BTU content of natural gas from fracking operations using gas chromatography. It describes how both flame ionization detectors (FID) and thermal conductivity detectors (TCD) are needed to measure the concentrations of hydrocarbon components and inert gases to determine the total BTU value. The analysis can be performed using a gas chromatograph equipped with dual FID/TCD detectors, packed and capillary columns, and temperature programming to separate methane, ethane, and heavier hydrocarbons up to C6 in about 12 minutes to allow calculation of the natural gas heating content.
This document discusses energy efficiency and auditing of industrial utilities. It begins by defining energy efficiency as reducing energy input without negatively affecting output. The objectives of industrial energy efficiency are outlined as minimizing costs and energy waste, optimizing energy use, improving environmental performance, and enhancing reputation. Key industrial utilities discussed include boilers, furnaces, electric motors, pumps, compressors, and HVAC systems. Methods of assessing the efficiency of these systems and opportunities for improved energy efficiency are also presented.
1. The document describes an experimental and numerical study of laminar burning velocity of methane-air mixtures using a heat flux method.
2. The study aims to design and fabricate a new flat flame burner, experimentally measure laminar burning velocity using the heat flux method, and perform 2D and 3D simulations to compare with experimental results.
3. The key aspects of the study are the experimental setup using the new flat flame burner, the theoretical basis of the heat flux method for determining laminar burning velocity, and the planned numerical simulations and analysis of results.
1. The document describes an experimental and numerical study of laminar burning velocity of methane-air mixtures using a heat flux method.
2. The study aims to design and fabricate a new flat flame burner, experimentally measure laminar burning velocity using the heat flux method, and perform 2D and 3D simulations to compare with experimental results.
3. The key aspects of the study are the experimental setup using the new flat flame burner, the theoretical basis of the heat flux method for determining laminar burning velocity, and the planned numerical simulations and analysis of results.
On data collection time by an electronic noseIJECEIAES
We use electronic nose data of odor measurements to build machine learning clas- sification models. The presented analysis focused on determining the optimal time of measurement, leading to the best model performance. We observe that the most valuable information for classification is available in data collected at the beginning of adsorption and the beginning of the desorption phase of measurement. We demonstrated that the usage of complex features extracted from the sensors’ response gives better classification performance than use as features only raw values of sensors’ response, normalized by baseline. We use a group shuffling cross-validation approach for determining the reported models’ average accuracy and standard deviation.
The high demand of meat causes the seller mix the fresh and not-fresh meat. Electronic nose was used to detect the quality of the meat quickly and accurately. This research is proposed to test and analyze the sensitivity of MOS sensor in the electronic nose and simulate it using Matlab to identify meat classification using neural network. Test parameters based on Indonesian National Standard (SNI 3932-2008) requirement on the quality of carcass and meat. In this simulation, the number of neurons in the hidden layer was varied to find the most accurate identification. The sensitivity analysis of the MOS sensor was conducted by testing the meat sample aroma, calculate the sensitivity, identify the formation of input, hidden layer, outputs, and simulate the result of the varied formation. Then, found the number of the most optimal neurons. The result of the data training will be applied to the real instrument.
An experimental and kinetic study of syngas-air combustion at elevated temper...Saad Tanvir
This document describes an experimental study of syngas combustion at elevated temperatures and the effect of adding water. Laminar flame speeds of syngas/air mixtures were measured over a range of fuel compositions, equivalence ratios, and preheat temperatures. The measured flame speeds were compared to simulations from existing chemical kinetic models, showing reasonable agreement at room temperature but large discrepancies at higher temperatures. Water was added to two syngas fuels up to 40% by volume, and different effects on flame speed were observed depending on the fuel composition and water concentration, related to competing chemical and physical impacts of water addition.
This document describes an experimental study on the effect of hydrogen blending on burning velocity for different fuels. The study involved:
- Designing a constant volume combustion chamber and instrumentation to measure laminar burning velocity and flame speed.
- Investigating the impact of equivalence ratio, initial pressure, and hydrogen blending ratio on burning velocity and other combustion parameters for LPG-air and hydrogen-LPG-air mixtures.
- Developing empirical correlations between studied variables using a FORTRAN program to calculate mixture properties.
Results showed that hydrogen blending increased adiabatic flame temperature and burning velocity. Burning velocity increased with higher equivalence ratios and hydrogen percentages, but decreased with initial pressure. Experimental data agreed well with previous
Thermal Simulation of Biogas Plants Using Mat LabIJERA Editor
The major prerequisite for the optimum production of methane from a biogas plant is the sustenance of digester temperature within the narrow limits (300C-350C). It is experimentally investigated that, the MIT biogas plant is not maintaining optimum temperature, this decreases the efficiency and increases the detention time for charge. To maintain the plant in optimum temperature, it is necessary to find out the heat losses from the biogas plant and the external energy inputs need to operate the plant. Rate of gas yield, and the detention time (time necessary to anaerobically digest organic wastes) in a biogas reactor, are favorable functions of the temperature in the digester. A thermal simulation for MIT biogas plant has developed using matlab in order to understand the heat transfer from the slurry and the gas holder to the surrounding earth and air respectively. The computation has been performed when the slurry is maintained at 200C and 300C, optimum temperature of anaerobic fermentation. If the slurry is considered to be at 350C, the optimum temperature of anaerobic fermentation, the total heat loss from the plant is higher than the heat loss when the slurry is maintained at 200C. The heat calculations provide an appraisal for the heat which has to be supplied by external means to compensate for the net heat losses which occur if the slurry is to be maintained at 350C. A solar system with auxiliary electric heater is designed for maintaining the slurry at 350C.In conclusion; the results of thermal analysis are used to define a strategy for operating biogas plant at optimum temperatures.
Comparison of Calorific Values of Various Fuels from Different Fuel Stationsresearchinventy
Current research takes in to account of calorific value of various fuel (Diesel) available in the state of Telangana (India). The purpose of this experiment is to determine the heat of combustion for diesel and to learn basic bomb procedures. This experiment will be accomplished by using an adiabatic bomb calorimeter. The fuel sold by different company show different calorific value; by finding out the change in the calorific we can find out the high quality fuel available in the market. This research had covered the importance of calorific value of different fuel (diesel) with the help of a case study from Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology
Exergetic efficiency analysis of hydrogen–air detonation in pulse detonation ...BBIT Kolkata
Exergy losses during the combustion process, heat transfer, and fuel utilization play a vital role in the analysis of the
exergetic efficiency of combustion process. Detonation is thermodynamically more efficient than deflagration mode of
combustion. Detonation combustion technology inside the pulse detonation engine using hydrogen as a fuel is energetic
propulsion system for next generation. In this study, the main objective of this work is to quantify the exergetic efficiency
of hydrogen–air combustion for deflagration and detonation combustion process. Further detonation parameters are
calculated using 0.25, 0.35, and 0.55 of H2 mass concentrations in the combustion process. The simulations have been
performed for converging the solution using commercial computational fluid dynamics package Ansys Fluent solver. The
details of combustion physics in chemical reacting flows of hydrogen–air mixture in two control volumes were simulated
using species transport model with eddy dissipation turbulence chemistry interaction. From these simulations it was
observed that exergy loss in the deflagration combustion process is higher in comparison to the detonation combustion
process. The major observation was that pilot fuel economy for the two combustion processes and augmentation of
exergetic efficiencies are better in the detonation combustion process. The maximum exergetic efficiency of 55.12%,
53.19%, and 23.43% from deflagration combustion process and from detonation combustion process, 67.55%, 57.49%,
and 24.89%, are obtained from aforesaid H2 mass fraction. It was also found that for lesser fuel mass fraction higher
exergetic efficiency was observed.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF POROUS RADIANT BURNER AN...BIBHUTI BHUSAN SAMANTARAY
This paper presents the heat transfer characteristics of a
self-aspirating porous radiant burner (SAPRB) that operates
on the basis of an effective energy conversion method between
flowing gas enthalpy and thermal radiation. The temperature
field at various flame zones was measured experimentally by
the help of both FLUKE IR camera and K-type thermocouples.
The experimental setup consisted of a two layered domestic
cooking burner, a flexible test stand attached with six K-type
thermocouples at different positions, IR camera, LPG setup
and a hot wire anemometer. The two layered SAPRB consisted
of a combustion zone and a preheating zone. Combustion zone
was formed with high porosity, highly radiating porous
matrix, and the preheating zone consisted of low porosity
matrix. Time dependent temperature history from
thermocouples at various flame zones were acquired by using
a data acquisition system and the temperature profiles were
analyzed in the ZAILA application software environments. In
the other hand the IR graphs were captured by FLUKE IR
camera and the thermographs were analyzed in the
SMARTView software environments. The experimental results
revealed that the homogeneous porous media, in addition to
its convective heat exchange with the gas, might absorb, emit,
and scatter thermal radiation. The rate of heat transfer was
more at the center of the burner where a combined effect of
both convection & radiation might be realized. The maximum
thermal efficiency was found to be 64% which was having a
good agreement with the previous data in the open literature.
The document discusses two main types of oxygen analyzers: zirconia and paramagnetic. Zirconia analyzers work by generating a voltage based on the difference in oxygen concentration between a process gas and reference gas in contact with a zirconia element. Paramagnetic analyzers detect oxygen concentration based on the displacement of a dumbbell in a magnetic field caused by oxygen's paramagnetic properties. The document also provides details on calibrating, testing, and maintaining zirconia oxygen analyzers.
The heating value, also known as the calorific value or energy value, is the amount of heat released during the combustion of a fuel. It is measured in units of energy per unit of the substance, such as kJ/kg. The higher heating value takes into account the latent heat of vaporization of water in the combustion products, while the lower heating value does not. Heating values are commonly determined through the use of a bomb calorimeter.
The document describes a carbon footprint analysis project conducted by a student team. It includes an introduction to carbon footprints and their calculation. The team analyzed factors that influence individual carbon footprints, including household size and characteristics, home features, and energy usage habits. Experimental designs were used to analyze the relationship between these factors and carbon footprint values. The analyses found that the number of bedrooms significantly impacted carbon footprints, while steps taken to heat and cool homes did not have a significant effect. The randomized block design found no interaction between household type and number of bedrooms.
This is a lecture is a series on combustion chemical kinetics for engineers. The course topics are selections from thermodynamics and kinetics especially geared to the interests of engineers involved in combusition
The document discusses energy performance assessment of boilers. It defines key terms like boiler efficiency and evaporation ratio. It describes standards for boiler testing from British, ASME, and Indian standards. It then explains the direct and indirect methods for testing boiler efficiency, including measuring inputs of fuel, air, and outputs of steam. Instruments used for assessment are also outlined. Formats for collecting boiler specifications and performance data are provided. The document calculates boiler efficiency using an example and discusses factors affecting boiler performance.
Optimizing Bunsen burner Performance Using CFD AnalysisIJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
This document discusses key thermodynamic concepts related to combustion processes, including:
1) Heat of combustion, flame temperature, enthalpy of combustion systems, and equilibrium constants of combustion reactions are the major thermodynamic functions that influence fuel utilization.
2) Heat of combustion represents the potential heat of a fuel and can be used to calculate calorific value. Enthalpy is the heat content of a system at constant pressure.
3) Flame temperature depends on the fuel-oxidant mixture and ranges from theoretical to actual temperatures. The maximum adiabatic flame temperature occurs at slightly excess stoichiometry.
Energy performance assessment of boilersUtsav Jain
The document discusses performance testing of boilers. It describes various factors that affect boiler performance over time such as poor combustion, heat transfer fouling, and deteriorated fuel and water quality. Boiler efficiency testing is important to evaluate how efficiency changes from the design value and identify problems. The direct method and indirect method of testing are described. The indirect method involves calculating different heat losses in the boiler system to determine efficiency. Various measurements, instruments, test conditions and computational procedures for conducting boiler performance tests are outlined.
In this work, thermal characterization of centrifuged aromatic citrus oils was studied using thermal lens (TL) and open photoacoustic cell (OPC). The thermal diffusivity (D) was obtained by TL, fitting the critical time parameter of the experimental curves to the theoretical values. An experimental arrangement of non-matched mode lasers with a probe laser and an excitation lasers was used. On the other hand, the thermal effusivity (e) of the samples was obtained by using OPC. The thermal conductivity (k) was calculated from the
relationship between D and e. The thermal parameters obtained were compared with the theoretical values in the literature. UV-vis spectroscopy, Attenuated Total ReflectanceFourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) were used to determine the absorption coefficients and chemical structure of the citrus oils. The importance of this research work was the determination of the thermal parameters of essential oils as an alternative technique for quality control application.
The understanding of gas geochemical model to reduce the exploration uncertaintyRizal Abiyudo
The various fumaroles areas in the prospect are can be modelled by boiling depletion model and the relation between each of fumaroles. Geothermal waters would boil to create a first set of fumaroles and then the boiled, gas-depleted water outflows to the site of a second set of fumaroles where it boils again, creating fumaroles with gas-depleted chemistry.
Analysis of Natural Gas Composition and BTU Content from Fracking OperationsJennifer Maclachlan
This document discusses analyzing the composition and BTU content of natural gas from fracking operations using gas chromatography. It describes how both flame ionization detectors (FID) and thermal conductivity detectors (TCD) are needed to measure the concentrations of hydrocarbon components and inert gases to determine the total BTU value. The analysis can be performed using a gas chromatograph equipped with dual FID/TCD detectors, packed and capillary columns, and temperature programming to separate methane, ethane, and heavier hydrocarbons up to C6 in about 12 minutes to allow calculation of the natural gas heating content.
This document discusses energy efficiency and auditing of industrial utilities. It begins by defining energy efficiency as reducing energy input without negatively affecting output. The objectives of industrial energy efficiency are outlined as minimizing costs and energy waste, optimizing energy use, improving environmental performance, and enhancing reputation. Key industrial utilities discussed include boilers, furnaces, electric motors, pumps, compressors, and HVAC systems. Methods of assessing the efficiency of these systems and opportunities for improved energy efficiency are also presented.
1. The document describes an experimental and numerical study of laminar burning velocity of methane-air mixtures using a heat flux method.
2. The study aims to design and fabricate a new flat flame burner, experimentally measure laminar burning velocity using the heat flux method, and perform 2D and 3D simulations to compare with experimental results.
3. The key aspects of the study are the experimental setup using the new flat flame burner, the theoretical basis of the heat flux method for determining laminar burning velocity, and the planned numerical simulations and analysis of results.
1. The document describes an experimental and numerical study of laminar burning velocity of methane-air mixtures using a heat flux method.
2. The study aims to design and fabricate a new flat flame burner, experimentally measure laminar burning velocity using the heat flux method, and perform 2D and 3D simulations to compare with experimental results.
3. The key aspects of the study are the experimental setup using the new flat flame burner, the theoretical basis of the heat flux method for determining laminar burning velocity, and the planned numerical simulations and analysis of results.
On data collection time by an electronic noseIJECEIAES
We use electronic nose data of odor measurements to build machine learning clas- sification models. The presented analysis focused on determining the optimal time of measurement, leading to the best model performance. We observe that the most valuable information for classification is available in data collected at the beginning of adsorption and the beginning of the desorption phase of measurement. We demonstrated that the usage of complex features extracted from the sensors’ response gives better classification performance than use as features only raw values of sensors’ response, normalized by baseline. We use a group shuffling cross-validation approach for determining the reported models’ average accuracy and standard deviation.
The high demand of meat causes the seller mix the fresh and not-fresh meat. Electronic nose was used to detect the quality of the meat quickly and accurately. This research is proposed to test and analyze the sensitivity of MOS sensor in the electronic nose and simulate it using Matlab to identify meat classification using neural network. Test parameters based on Indonesian National Standard (SNI 3932-2008) requirement on the quality of carcass and meat. In this simulation, the number of neurons in the hidden layer was varied to find the most accurate identification. The sensitivity analysis of the MOS sensor was conducted by testing the meat sample aroma, calculate the sensitivity, identify the formation of input, hidden layer, outputs, and simulate the result of the varied formation. Then, found the number of the most optimal neurons. The result of the data training will be applied to the real instrument.
Asthma Identification Using Gas Sensors and Support Vector MachineTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
The exhaled breath analysis is a procedure of measuring several types of gases that aim to
identify various diseases in the human body. The purpose of this study is to analyze the gases contained
in the exhaled breath in order to recognize healthy and asthma subjects with varying severity. An
electronic nose consisting of seven gas sensors equipped with the Support Vector Machine classification
method is used to analyze the gases to determine the patient's condition. Non-linear binary classification is
used to identify healthy and asthma subjects, whereas the multiclass classification is applied to recognize
the subjects of asthma with different severity. The result of this study showed that the system provided a
low accuracy to distinguish the subjects of asthma with varying severity. This system can only differentiate
between partially controlled and uncontrolled asthma subjects with good accuracy. However, this system
can provide high sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy to distinguish between healthy and asthma subjects.
The use of five gas sensors in the electronic nose system has the best accuracy in the classification
results of 89.5%. The gases of carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, volatile organic compounds, hydrogen, and
carbon dioxide contained in the exhaled breath are the dominant indications as biomarkers of asthma.The
performance of electronic nose was highly dependent on the ability of sensor array to analyze gas type in
the sample. Therefore, in further study we will employ the sensors having higher sensitivity to detect lower
concentration of the marker gases.
Design of Electronic Nose System Using Gas Chromatography Principle and Surfa...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Most gases are odorless, colorless and also hazard to be sensed by the human olfactory system.
Hence, an electronic nose system is required for the gas classification process. This study presents the
design of electronic nose system using a combination of Gas Chromatography Column and a Surface
Acoustic Wave (SAW). The Gas Chromatography Column is a technique based on the compound partition
at a certain temperature. Whereas, the SAW sensor works based on the resonant frequency change. In
this study, gas samples including methanol, acetonitrile, and benzene are used for system performance
measurement. Each gas sample generates a specific acoustic signal data in the form of a frequency
change recorded by the SAW sensor. Then, the acoustic signal data is analyzed to obtain the acoustic
features, i.e. the peak amplitude, the negative slope, the positive slope, and the length. The Support
Vector Machine (SVM) method using the acoustic feature as its input parameters are applied to classify
the gas sample. Radial Basis Function is used to build the optimal hyperplane model which devided into
two processes i.e., the training process and the external validation process. According to the result
performance, the training process has the accuracy of 98.7% and the external validation process has the
accuracy of 93.3%. Our electronic nose system has the average sensitivity of 51.43 Hz/mL to sense the
gas samples.
Primary Odor on Consideration of Reducing the Number of Compositionsinventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This document summarizes a research study that examined the use of a metal oxide semiconductor pellet sensor for detecting components of exhaled breath. Specifically, it fabricated a pellet sensor using a mixture of zinc oxide and tin oxide nanopowders. It characterized the sensor's electrical conductivity, sensitivity, response time and recovery time when exposed to exhaled breath and individual exhaled breath components at room temperature. The study found that the pellet sensor's electrical conductivity decreases when exposed to exhaled breath, and that it responds differently to different exhaled breath components. The pellet sensor shows potential for use in disease detection or quantification of exhaled breath components through non-invasive breath analysis.
Influence of temperature on the liquid liquid equilibria of methanol benzene ...Josemar Pereira da Silva
This document summarizes a study on the liquid-liquid equilibria of the ternary system composed of methanol, benzene, and hexane at temperatures of 278.15 K, 283.15 K, and 293.15 K. Equilibrium data including component mass fractions in each phase are reported for the three temperatures. The data are compared to literature data and correlated using various models including Othmer and Tobias, NRTL, and UNIFAC. The results show that temperature influences the liquid-liquid equilibrium behavior of the system.
Influence of temperature on the liquid liquid equilibria of methanol benzene ...Josemar Pereira da Silva
This document summarizes a study on the liquid-liquid equilibrium of the ternary system composed of methanol, benzene, and hexane at different temperatures. Experimental data on the compositions of the coexisting liquid phases are reported at 278.15 K, 283.15 K, and 293.15 K. The data show that increasing the temperature decreases the miscibility gap between the methanol-rich and hexane-rich phases. Models like UNIQUAC and NRTL are able to correlate the experimental equilibrium data reasonably well at the different temperatures, while UNIFAC predicts a larger immiscibility region than observed.
Development of-an-electronic-nose-for-fire-detection 2006-sensors-and-actuato...Allan Melvin Andrew
The document describes the development of an electronic nose using an array of eight conducting polymer sensors for fire detection. Chemical analysis of smoke from common fires identified markers that could be used to select suitable sensors. The electronic nose was able to broadly detect markers from different fire and non-fire events, as shown through principal component analysis. Initial testing suggests this e-nose technology could help reduce false alarms in fire detection.
This document provides information about a practical report on data logging conducted by students. It discusses the setup of the experiment where sensors measured oxygen, temperature, and humidity during the combustion of a candle. The results are presented in a graph showing changes in these variables over three minutes. Analysis indicates oxygen levels dropping caused the candle to extinguish and increased temperature and humidity as combustion occurred. The document emphasizes the benefits of using data logging for experiments like obtaining accurate readings and easier result presentation.
The document discusses electronic noses, which are devices that mimic the human sense of smell. It describes electronic noses as consisting of an array of electronic sensors and a neural network for pattern recognition. The document then compares the biological nose to an electronic nose and discusses their similarities. It explains the need for electronic noses due to limitations of human sniffers. The working, principle, and applications of electronic noses are outlined, including uses in food, medical, environmental, and other industries. The document concludes that while not as sensitive as biological noses, electronic noses can perform analyses faster and at lower cost than human sniffers.
The document discusses electronic noses, which are devices that mimic the human sense of smell. It describes electronic noses as consisting of an array of electronic sensors and a neural network for pattern recognition. The document then compares the biological nose to an electronic nose and discusses their similarities. It explains the need for electronic noses due to limitations of human sniffers. The working, principle, and applications of electronic noses are outlined, including uses in food, medical, environmental, and other industries. The document concludes that while not as sensitive as biological noses, electronic noses can perform analyses faster and at lower cost than human sniffers.
Graphene/PSMA composite for gas sensing applicationjournalBEEI
This paper presents the fabrication of conducting polymer sensor which comprise of graphene-poly styrene-co-maleic acid (PSMA) composite that responds to volatile organic compound (VOC) via a change in the electrical resistance of the sensors. Five sensors composed of different material ratio were fabricated to find out the most prominent weight percentage ratio (wt %) for optimum sensor response. Those materials were deposited onto silver electrode using drop-casting method. NI Card PCIE-6323 measures the voltage obtained from the sensor circuit and the resistance of the gas sensor monitored using LabVIEW instrument. It was observed from the experiments that combination of 60% graphene and 40% PSMA gives the highest sensor response.
This presentation provides an overview of electronic noses (e-noses). It discusses how e-noses can detect volatile organic compounds to identify odors, similar to biological noses but with advantages like not tiring, getting sick, or being distracted. The main components of an e-nose include a sample delivery system to introduce odors, a sensor array to transduce chemical interactions into electrical signals, and a computing system to analyze the sensor responses. Common sensor technologies are metal oxide sensors, conducting polymers, quartz crystal microbalances, and MOSFETs. E-noses find applications in medical diagnosis, environmental monitoring, the food industry, and detecting explosives. Future areas of research include miniaturizing e-nose technology and
This document provides information about a practical report on data logging conducted by students. It discusses the introduction to data logging, how it was used in a scientific experiment to monitor combustion. The experiment measured oxygen, temperature, and humidity levels in a bell jar during combustion using different sensors connected to a computer. The results are presented in a graph showing decreases in oxygen and temperature and increases in humidity over time. The discussion explains how combustion occurred and how the sensors measured related changes in the variables during the reaction.
This document provides information about a practical report on data logging conducted by students. It discusses the introduction and importance of data logging in scientific experiments. The report details the planning, setup, results and discussion of an experiment on combustion conducted using temperature, light, humidity and oxygen sensors connected to a data logger. Graphs generated from the data logger showed relationships between oxygen, temperature and humidity during the combustion of a candle. The report concludes data logging provided an easy method to organize experimental results.
Flue gas, or exhaust gas, is generated through combustion processes. It contains oxides of carbon, hydrogen, and other elements from the fuel, along with any excess air. Many components are air pollutants that must be cleaned or minimized before release. Flue gas analysis indicates the combustion efficiency and air-to-fuel ratio. It can be used to predict flue sizes and losses. Common analysis techniques include gas chromatography, mass spectroscopy, and indicators that detect specific components like carbon monoxide. Proper flue gas analysis promotes safety, efficiency, and process optimization.
This document summarizes a presentation on electronic noses. It begins with an introduction comparing biological noses to electronic noses. The need for electronic noses is that they are faster, more reliable, and can detect hazardous gases that humans cannot. The basic design of an electronic nose involves pulling a gas sample through a sensor array to produce response signals. Common sensor technologies are described along with the sample delivery, detection, and computing systems of electronic noses. Applications discussed include medical diagnosis, environmental monitoring, food quality control, and explosive detection. In conclusion, while electronic noses are cheaper and faster than biological noses, they still cannot match the sensitivity and selectivity of mammalian noses.
The document provides an overview of electronic noses (e-noses). It defines an e-nose as a device that detects odors and flavors using an array of sensors that generate electrical signals in response to volatile compounds. The document discusses the history, working principle, sensor technologies, applications, and conclusion of e-noses. It notes that e-noses were first reported in 1964 and aim to mimic the mammalian olfactory system to allow repeatable identification and classification of aroma mixtures. The working principle involves a sample delivery system to generate headspace, sensors to detect physical changes from compound absorption, and a computing system to analyze the responses.
The document provides an overview of electronic noses (e-noses). It defines an e-nose as a device that detects odors and flavors using an array of sensors that generate electrical signals in response to volatile compounds. The document discusses the history, working principle, sensor technologies, applications, and conclusion of e-noses. It notes that e-noses were first reported in 1964 and aim to mimic the mammalian olfactory system to allow repeatable identification and classification of aroma mixtures. The working principle involves a sample delivery system to generate headspace, sensors to detect physical changes from compound absorption, and a computing system to analyze the responses.
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The document describes the results of a model trained and tested on 6 datasets split into training and test portions. The model achieved mean accuracy scores ranging from 99.88% to 99.90% across the 6 datasets, indicating highly accurate performance on both the training and test portions of each dataset.
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zkStudyClub - Reef: Fast Succinct Non-Interactive Zero-Knowledge Regex ProofsAlex Pruden
This paper presents Reef, a system for generating publicly verifiable succinct non-interactive zero-knowledge proofs that a committed document matches or does not match a regular expression. We describe applications such as proving the strength of passwords, the provenance of email despite redactions, the validity of oblivious DNS queries, and the existence of mutations in DNA. Reef supports the Perl Compatible Regular Expression syntax, including wildcards, alternation, ranges, capture groups, Kleene star, negations, and lookarounds. Reef introduces a new type of automata, Skipping Alternating Finite Automata (SAFA), that skips irrelevant parts of a document when producing proofs without undermining soundness, and instantiates SAFA with a lookup argument. Our experimental evaluation confirms that Reef can generate proofs for documents with 32M characters; the proofs are small and cheap to verify (under a second).
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GraphSummit Singapore | The Future of Agility: Supercharging Digital Transfor...Neo4j
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This keynote will reveal how Deloitte leverages Neo4j’s graph power for groundbreaking digital twin solutions, achieving a staggering 100x performance boost. Discover the essential role knowledge graphs play in successful generative AI implementations. Plus, get an exclusive look at an innovative Neo4j + Generative AI solution Deloitte is developing in-house.
In his public lecture, Christian Timmerer provides insights into the fascinating history of video streaming, starting from its humble beginnings before YouTube to the groundbreaking technologies that now dominate platforms like Netflix and ORF ON. Timmerer also presents provocative contributions of his own that have significantly influenced the industry. He concludes by looking at future challenges and invites the audience to join in a discussion.
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Early stage fire detection using reliable metal oxide gas sensors and artificial neural networks
1. Early Stage Fire Detection Using Reliable Metal Oxide Gas Sensorsand Artificial
Neural Networks
Bancha Charumpom, Michifumi Yoshioka, Tom Fujinaka, and Sigeru Omatu
Division of Computer and Systems Science, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University
1-1 Gakuen-cho, Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
E-mail: bancha@sig.cs.osakafu-u.ac.jp
Abstract-Conventional fire detectors use the smoke density or
the high air temperature to trigger the fire alarm. These devices
lack of ability to detect the source of fire in the early stage
and they always create false alarms. In this paper, a reliable
electronic nose (EN)system designed from the combination of
various metal oxide gas sensors (MOGS) is applied to detect the
early stage of fire from various sources. The time series signals
of the same source of fire in every repetition data are highly
correlated and each source of fire has a unique pattern of time
series data. Therefore, the error back propagation (BP) method
can classify the tested smell with 99.6% of correct classification
by using only a single training data from each source of fire.
The results of the k-means algorithms can be achieved 983% of
correct classification which also show the high ability of the EN
to detect the early stage of fire from various sources accurately.
I. INTRODUCTION
Every year the damage from the household fire disaster
brings about not only severe loss to property assets, but also
physical and psychological injuries of the people. Although
most of the residences have installed the fire detectors system
such as smoke detectors, those devices cannot detect the early
stage of fire since their warning signals are triggered by the
high smoke density or the high air temperature. In this paper,
the reliability of a new electronic nose (EN) system developed
from various metal oxide gas sensors (MOGSs) to specify the
smell from various sources of fire is presented.
lame A. Milke [I] has proved that two kinds of MOGSs
have the ability to classify several sources of fire more pre-
cisely than conventional smoke detector. However, his results
can be achieved only 85% of correct classification. In this
paper, a new EN that has been successfully applied to classify
not only the same smell from different brands, but also the
same smell at different concentration levels [2] is applied to
measure smells from various sources of fire such as household
burning materials, cooking smells, the leakage from the liquid
petroleum gas (LPG). The time series signals of the MOGSs
from the beginning to the time until the MOGSs are fully
absorbed the smell from each source of fire are recorded and
analyzed by the error back propagation (BP) neural networks
and the k-means algorithms. The average classification rate of
99.6% can be achieved by using the BP method with only
a single training data from each source of fire. The results
from the k-means algorithm can be achieved 98.3% of correct
classification that also confirms the reliability of this new
device to be able to detect various sources of fire in the early
stage much better than the results of Jame A. Mike [I].
11. METALOXIDEGASSENSORSAS OLFACTORY
A commercial MOGS has been developed widely for more
than thirty years. Generally, it is designed to detect some
specific smell in electrical appliances such as an air purifier,
a breath alcohol checker, and so on. Each type of MOGS has
its own characteristics to response to different gases. When
combining many MOGSs together, the ability to detect the
smell is increased. An EN system shown in Fig. I has been
developed based on the concept of human olfactory system
by using the combination of MOGSs from FIS Inc. listed in
Table I as the olfactory receptors in the human nose. The
MOGSs unit is combined with the air flow system to flow
the air and the tested smell into the MOGSs unit. The data
logger converts the analog signals to digital signals and stores
them in the data recording system before being analyzed by
multivariate analytical methods, such as the BP method and
the k-means algorithms.
RECEPTORS
Fig. t.
Inside of the EN containing various metal oxide gas sensors
(above) Schematic diagram of the electronic nose system (below)
0-7803-7898-9/03/$17.00 02003 IEEE 3185
2. LISTOF MOGSs FROM THE FIS INC. USEDIN THISEXPERIMENT
SP-32 Alcohol
SP-42A
SP-31 Hydrocarbon
SP-I9
SP-II Methane, Hydrocarbon
The main part of the MOGS is the metal oxide element
on the surface of the sensor. When this element is heated at a
certain high temperature, the oxygen is absorbed on the crystal
surface with the negative charge. The reaction between the
negative charge of the metal oxide surface and deoxidizing gas
makes the resistance of the sensor vary as the partial pressure
of oxygen changes [3]. Based on this characteristic, we can
measure the total voltage changes during the sensors absorbing
the tested odor.
Since the MOGS is sensitive to the temperature and the
humidity, the MOGSs unit is put in a small chamber that has
a heating system to increase the air temperature during winter
season. The heating unit can also decrease the air humidity
in the chamber. The clean water is manually sprayed into
the chamber when the humidity drops lower than the control
level. In this experiment the temperature in the chamber is
kept between 20-30 'c and the humidity is kept between 30-
40%RH. The tested smell is sucked to mix with the fresh
air before passing to the MOGSs unit. The distance from the
tested smell to the MOGSs unit is approximately 1.5 m.
111. EXPERIMENTALDATACOLLECTION
The smell from twelve sources of fire listed in Table I1 are
measured by the EN system explained in previous section.
Each source of fire has been tested with forty repetition data
measured in different days in order to check the repeatability
response of the MOGSs to the same smell.
TABLE I1
LIST OF BURNING MATERIALSIN THE EXPERIMENT
Sources of fire
Steam from boiling waler
Buming joss stick
Buming mosquito coil
Aroma oil
Aroma candle
Flame from liquid petroleum gas(LPG)
Leakage of LPG
Steam from Japanese soup called "aden"
Boiling vegetable oil
Toasted bread
Buming paper
Buming wood
Abbreviation
Steam
loss
Mas
Aroma
Candle
Flame
LPG
Ode"
Oil
Toarl
Wood
Paper
TABLE I
each smell sample. Finally, the total change in signals on each
1
I
I
I
3186
For each data, the voltage signal of the normal air is
measured every second for one minute and its average value,
B,,,,, is used as an air reference point. After that, the voltage
signals of the sensors when absorbing tested smell,
are collected every second for a period of two minutes on
.
period, V3mell,t,is calculated by
Vsme11,t = "3mell.t -oat, (1)
where t is the time from I to 120s.
After testing one smell the MOGSs need to he cleaned by
removing the tested smell and supplying only the fresh air
until the MOGSs return to stable point before testing the new
sample. This process is just like the human nose which need
to breath the fresh air before able to recognize the new smell
accurately. Some time series data from the experiment in Fig.2
show that all smells approach the saturation stages within the
measuring periods. The signals from the same source of fire
in every repetition data are similar in most data sources. The
results using the BP method and the k-means algorithm to
analyze the time series data from each source of fire every
two seconds and the average signals during the saturation
stages(time 100-120s) are discussed in Section V.
Boiling Water Steam
A
Time [s]
VeQetable Oil
-1 -0
Time [SI
Toasled Bread
A
-0
Time [SI
LPG
Time [SI
--cSP-53 ---CSP-MWO
+SP-32 - - - X - -S P 4 2 A
--Y-SP-31 A S P - 1 9
SP-MW 1--tSP-11 -
Fig. 2. Time series data from some sources of fire in the experiment
3. IV. COKRELATlON OF THE EXPERIMENTAL DATA
Before classifying each source of data, the correlation of
each data source is investigated by using the similarity index
(SI) and the principal components analysis (PCA).
A. Sirriilnrity lridex
In the statistical application, the correlation value developed
mainly by Karl Pearson is widely used to find the relationship
between two random variables. In this paper, we call the
correlation value as a similarity index (SI). The SI value
varies from -1 to il. Two random variables with a SI of
either -1 or +1 are highly correlated because knowledge of
one provides precise knowledge of the other. However, the SI
provides information only about linear relationships between
random variables. Random variables could have a nonlinear
relationship but still have a SI close to 0 141. Therefore. we
make an assumption on this application that each data pattern
has nearly linear relationship to the other data patterns.The SI
value between two data is calculated by
where u , ~is the the SI d u e , .i' and y itre the comparing data.
:i:= Kxy=i.r,. = t x:.Li !I,. and 11 is the the size of each
data which equals 480 (60 periods x 8 sensors).
By using the SI to find the relationship between the repeti-
tinn data of each data source. we fimnd that all data sources
except the papet- and the wood have high average SI values
above 0.99. During the experiment, the paper and the wood
have inc(insisten1 burning rates. therefore the signals from the
repetition data of these sources are more Huctuated than the
other sources that have better consistent burning rate.
B. Principnl Coiiipoiieiirs Aiial,vsis
In this paper, the well known PCA is applied to analyze two
cases of the experimental data. The full time series data case
uses the data signals every tu'o seconds, but the saturation
stage data case uses only the average data from time 100
to 120s for analyzing. The plot of two main components are
shown in Fig.3. The distribution of the paper and the wood
burning smell are more scattered than the other kinds of smells
especially in the case of saturation stage data. Most of the
tested data are separated into their own clusters with some
overlap zones between different data source.
V. EXi'EKiMENTAL RESULTSA N D DISC~JSSION
A. E.iperiiiroitn1 Kesi,lt
Two case ill data are analyzed by the BP method and k-
means alpoi-iihm. The full time series data (TSD) case uses
the data from iill MOGSs every two seconds as the input data.
The saturation s t q e data (SSD) case uses only the average
value from m e 100 tu 120s. of all sensnrs as the input data.
Principal components Analysisof
Full Time Sarier Dolo
-1.5 -0.5 0.5 I .I 2.5
Component i (63.96%)
Principal ComponentsAnalysisof
soturonon sm*r Dolo
- 0.15
e
VI 0.1c:
.
-,I2 .ll.l I1 11.1 (1.2 11.3
rnmnnnrnt I r," 3 4 4")..... ~~ . , .. . ~,
-Stcam Jus 8 Mor L'Aroma
*Candle XFiamo LW BOden
A Oil +Toast .<Paper -Wood
Fig. 3. Two main components of the enperimcnlai data using the PCA
The BP structure shown in Fig.4 contains three layers. The
input layer of the TSD case, and the SSD case consists of
four hundred eighty nodes (8 sensors x 60 periods). and eight
nodes (average signal from 8 sensors), respectively. For the
hidden layer, we have tried with several values and the size
that gives.a good accuracy and a reasonable training time for
both data cases is forty nodes. The output layer contains twelve
nodes, each node represents one data source.The learning rate,
the momentum rate, and the minimum mean square error
(MSEj during the training period are set by trial and error
method to 0.1, 0.001, and 0.0003, respectively.
Fig. 4. The RP struclure in the experimeni
3187
4. TABLE 111
EXPERIMENTALRESULTS
100
-
Sources
of
fire
Steam
Joss
Mos
Aroma
Candle
Flame
LPG
Oden
Oil
Toast
Paper
Wood
Average
-
__
-
Full Time Sei
BP
Correct-
39/39
39/39
39/39
39/39
39/39
39/39
39/39
39/39
39/39
39/39
37/39
39/39__
-70
100
100
IO0
100
100
100
IO0
IO0
100
100
34.9
-
__
i Data f
k-me;
-
Correct~
40140
40140
40140
40140
40140
40140
40140
40140
40140
40140
35/40
37/40~
Based on the information during investigating the correla-
tion of the data, most data sources are highly correlated to their
repetition data with high SI values. Therefore, only one data
that has the highest average SI value to the other repetition
data from each sources of fire are used as the training data for
the BP and the rest of the data are used as the test data. We
assume t h t a pattem is classified correctly if (output 2 0.7
and target =I) or (output 5 0.3 and target =O).
For the k-means algorithm, the training data of the BP
method are used as the initialize data and then assigns the
data patterns to the nearest cluster center by calculating the
Euclidean distance. After that, the new cluster center is recal-
culated. The process continues until the position of the cluster
center is not changed. The final results of this experiment are
shown in Table 111.
The results using the TSD from both the BP method and the
k-means algorithm are better than those of the SSD case. The
data signals from the MOGSs are affected by many factors,
such as the sampling condition, the inconsistency burning rate.
the fluctuation from the standard air, and so on. Therefore, the
saturation stages of the data are varied by those factors. By
including the signal before,approaching the saturation stage,
the accuracy to classify all smell is increased.
8.Discussion
Although the distribution of PCA shown in Fig. 3 cannot
clearly separate similar smell such as the aroma oil and the
aroma candle, the BP method and the k-means algorithms are
able to classify them perfectly as shown in Table 111. The
results of TSD using the BP method have only two incorrect
classified data. These two data are not misclassified as the
other smells. Only the output value of their paper node are not
high enough to classify them as the paper. The output values
of these two data on the paper node are only 0.4951, and
0.4799, respectively and the output of the others output nodes
are nearly 0. The results are much better than the results from
-
D)
70
IO0
IO0
100
100
100
IO0
100
100
IO0
IO0
37.5
-
I-
-
Saturation SI
BP
Correct__
38/39
39/39
39/39
39/39
39/39
39/39
39/39
39/39
38/39
38/39
3 1/39
32/39~
92.5
)8.31
-
Yo
97.4
IO0
IO0
IO0
100
IO0
IO0
IO0
91.4
91.4
19.5
-
-1
k-me
Correct~
39/40
40140
40140
40140
40140
40140
40140
40140
37/39
40140
28/40
28/40~
s
92.5
[I] which used two kinds of MOGSs to classify several sources
of fire into three fire condition levels, flaming, smoldering, and
nuisance, with only 85%of correct classification. The smoke
density of the tested data are not high enough to trigger the
alarm of the smoke detector. In case of unusual burning smells
in the residences such as the wood burning, flaming from the
LPG, or the leakage LPG, it is necessary to have a proper
device to detect these sources before unable to stop the fire.
We can conclude that the new EN system shown in this paper
is a proper device for this application.
VI. CONCLUSION
We have presented the reliability of a new EN system
designed from various kinds of MOGSs. The EN has the
ability to identify various sources of fire in the early stage with
more than 99%of accuracy by using only a single training data
in the BP case. The results from the k-means algorithm are
also able to predict the sources of fire with, more than 98%
of accuracy. It can be concluded that the EN is suitable for
detecting the early stage of fire.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank Mr. Nobuaki Murakami
of FIS. Inc. for the technical information on making this
electronic nose and for the data logger equipment.
REFERENCES
[I] Jame A.Mike. "Applicaiton of Neural Networks for discemating Fire
Detecton". Inrernorionnl Conferenre on Aarrmotic Fire Derrrrion,
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121 Bancha Charumpam,Michifumi Yoshioka, Taru Fujinaka, and Sigeru
Omatu,"An Electronic Nose System Using Back Propagation Neural
Networks with a Cenhoid Training Data Set".pmceeding cfl the Eighr
lnrernarional Syntposium on Anlficinl Li/e and Robotics. Japnn.pp.605-
608. January 24-26. 2003
131 General Information far TGS sensors, Figaro Engineering. available at
www.Agarosensorcomlpraductdgenenlpdf.
[4] William L. Carlson and Betty Thome. Applied Sialisticol Methods.
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