This document provides an introduction to philosophy and the philosophical concept of determining truth. It begins by outlining the learning objectives and discussing how philosophy aims to acquire real knowledge and truth. It then examines various methods of philosophizing including distinguishing opinion from truth. The document explores several theories for determining truth such as correspondence theory, coherence theory, and pragmatic theory. It also discusses fallacies that can undermine arguments. Overall, the document serves as an introductory overview of philosophical perspectives on knowledge and determining what is considered true.
IntroductionThis class helped me to solve out and answer the ver.docxnormanibarber20063
Introduction
This class helped me to solve out and answer the very many questions in human’s mind or activities that most people accept responsibility by trying to figure out on their own, the kind of environment that they reside in and how they interact with one another. Studying philosophy helps people to understand how things work, consider them in order and reason about the obvious situations in life, the ones, which make sense, and the hardest things that linger in the human mind. There are different fields of studying philosophy; there is the field of ethics and reliability, scientific technology, religion or human spirit and the real nature. Theory helps to get knowledge about the history of things and how they came up, it is also useful for the people who do research especially in religion studies; they need to develop thoughts and reasoning on how to discover the proper reason for why must religion do things.
What I have learned
In this class I have learned many things, I have developed to be a person of critical thoughts and discovered how to engage in ideas and answer questions. I acquired a unique way to understand other people’s opinions, though am not special than the others, I have a skill that many do not have, that is, I make a decision out analytical and evaluation of thoughts and obtain information from other sources and come up with an outstanding outcome which we did in this class too. From philosophy, I have learned the people’s views should be respected by not underestimating my fellow friends for example when we were in our third week you asked us to see each others work and learn from it, when I saw my fellow students work I took it as an opportunity ti learn from others and see how others think and how different our answers were, this helped me to have insight and learn from my mistakes. Also, I have the skill to clearly request for information, consider and compare the various opinions or beliefs that I have, now through this class I can take my mind to any other place and think about how others feel about their religion and how different my religion was from them. I have learned to understand the history of things or why some behave in a unique manner and how they join with the real world in which we reside. The good thing about this class is that it gave me the ability to see things from many different perspectives. One way or another I can communicate to a large group of individuals and address them appropriately by arranging my ideas and narrate to them clearly and fluently to make sure that they get my message. In my view from this class I can say that I am a better person and focus on my abilities and what I need to change to be better than others, everything that I need to do in life I apply to this class by just coming up with discussion and critically think of it, and it becomes possible to deal with life matters too.
Informal logic
In philosophy, there is a study of informal logic which describes the la.
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Informal Fallacies
Enterline Design Services LLC/iStock/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the various fallacies of support, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
2. Describe the various fallacies of relevance, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
3. Describe the various fallacies of clarity, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
We can conceive of logic as providing us with the best tools for seeking truth. If our goal is to seek truth, then we must be clear that the task isnot limited to the formation of true beliefs based on a solid logical foundation, for the task also involves learning to avoid forming falsebeliefs. Therefore, just as it is important to learn to employ good reasoning, it is also important to learn to avoid bad reasoning.
Toward this end, this chapter will focus on fallacies. Fallacies are errors in reasoning; more specifically, they are common patterns ofreasoning with a high likelihood of leading to false conclusions. Logical fallacies often seem like good reasoning because they resembleperfectly legitimate argument forms. For example, the following is a perfectly valid argument:
If you live in Paris, then you live in France.
You live in Paris.
Therefore, you live in France.
Assuming that both of the premises are true, it logically follows that the conclusion must be true. The following argument is very similar:
If you live in Paris, then you live in France.
You live in France.
Therefore, you live in Paris.
This second argument, however, is invalid; there are plenty of other places to live in France. This is a common formal fallacy known asaffirming the consequent. Chapter 4 discussed how this fallacy was based on an incorrect logical form. This chapter will focus on informalfallacies, fallacies whose errors are not so much a matter of form but of content. The rest of this chapter will cover some of the most commonand important fallacies, with definitions and examples. Learning about fallacies can be a lot of fun, but be warned: Once you begin noticingfallacies, you may start to see them everywhere.
Before we start, it is worth noting a few things. First, there are many, many fallacies. This chapter will consider only a sampling of some of themost well-known fallacies. Second, there is a lot of overlap between fallacies. Reasonable people can interpret the same errors as differentfallacies. Focus on trying to understand both interpretations rather than on insisting that only one can be right. Third, different philosophersoften have different terminology for the same fallacies and make different distinctions among them. Therefore, you may find that others usedifferent terminology for the fallacies that we will learn about in this chapter. Not to worry—it is the ideas here that are most important: Ourgoal is to learn to identi.
Social Justice as a Form of Discourse Impacting Identity for Action.docxwhitneyleman54422
Social Justice as a Form of Discourse Impacting Identity for Action
By Philip S. Mirci, Ph.D. (2015)Introduction
Richard Paul (1992) wrote:
Because we do not come to our experience with a blank slate for a mind, because our thinking is already, at any given moment, moving in a direction, because we can form new ideas, beliefs, and patterns of thought only through the scaffolding of our previously formed thought, it is essential that we learn to think critically in environments in which a variety of competing ideas are taken seriously. … Knowledge is discovered by thinking, analyzed by thinking, organized by thinking, transformed by thinking… There is no way to take the thinking out of knowledge, or the struggle out of thinking, just as there is no way to create a neat and tidy step-by-step path to knowledge that all minds can mindlessly follow … But thinking requires counter-thinking, opposition and challenge, as well as support. We need reasons meaningful to us, some persuasive logic, to move our minds from one set of ideas or beliefs to another. In other words, we must “argue” ourselves out of our present thinking and into thinking that is more or less novel to us if we are to gain genuine knowledge [Critical thinking: what every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world. Santa Rosa, CA: The Foundation for Critical Thinking, p. xi].
The search for truth and knowledge is one of the finest attributes of man ― though often it is most loudly voiced by those who strive for it the least.
The world we have made as a result of the level of thinking we have done thus far creates problems that cannot be solved at the same level of thinking at which we created them.
Constructivism, as a learning theory, was consistent with neuroscience research: the brain makes sense of experience by accessing its own existing knowledge base in order to interpret that experience. Furthermore, one’s identity is connected to this sense-making process. Thus, one’s own knowledge about self, others, and the world is limited. Intellectual humility is the discipline of bringing this awareness to different methods of knowing. Stephen Freeman (2000) summarized three different methods of knowing that were first stated by Charles Peirce in 1940:
The first method of knowing, the method of tenacity, states that people hold firm to truths they “know” are true. In establishing these truths there may be a tendency to omit evidence that does not support our beliefs and to find and include that, which does. This represents the well-known problem of objectivity. Frequent repetition or re-indoctrination of these assumptions or truths enhances their validity. This, simply stated, means one finds what one looks for…
The second method of knowing is the method of authority or established belief. This method has the weight of tradition and public sanction behind it. Many of the things we think we know have been handed down by tradition. People have also .
IntroductionThis class helped me to solve out and answer the ver.docxnormanibarber20063
Introduction
This class helped me to solve out and answer the very many questions in human’s mind or activities that most people accept responsibility by trying to figure out on their own, the kind of environment that they reside in and how they interact with one another. Studying philosophy helps people to understand how things work, consider them in order and reason about the obvious situations in life, the ones, which make sense, and the hardest things that linger in the human mind. There are different fields of studying philosophy; there is the field of ethics and reliability, scientific technology, religion or human spirit and the real nature. Theory helps to get knowledge about the history of things and how they came up, it is also useful for the people who do research especially in religion studies; they need to develop thoughts and reasoning on how to discover the proper reason for why must religion do things.
What I have learned
In this class I have learned many things, I have developed to be a person of critical thoughts and discovered how to engage in ideas and answer questions. I acquired a unique way to understand other people’s opinions, though am not special than the others, I have a skill that many do not have, that is, I make a decision out analytical and evaluation of thoughts and obtain information from other sources and come up with an outstanding outcome which we did in this class too. From philosophy, I have learned the people’s views should be respected by not underestimating my fellow friends for example when we were in our third week you asked us to see each others work and learn from it, when I saw my fellow students work I took it as an opportunity ti learn from others and see how others think and how different our answers were, this helped me to have insight and learn from my mistakes. Also, I have the skill to clearly request for information, consider and compare the various opinions or beliefs that I have, now through this class I can take my mind to any other place and think about how others feel about their religion and how different my religion was from them. I have learned to understand the history of things or why some behave in a unique manner and how they join with the real world in which we reside. The good thing about this class is that it gave me the ability to see things from many different perspectives. One way or another I can communicate to a large group of individuals and address them appropriately by arranging my ideas and narrate to them clearly and fluently to make sure that they get my message. In my view from this class I can say that I am a better person and focus on my abilities and what I need to change to be better than others, everything that I need to do in life I apply to this class by just coming up with discussion and critically think of it, and it becomes possible to deal with life matters too.
Informal logic
In philosophy, there is a study of informal logic which describes the la.
FREE 11 Speech Writing Samples amp; Templates in PDF. Speech essay sample. example of informative speech outline Essay .... Scholarship essay: Speech sample essay. Speech writing format example. Top list of speech writing format cbse .... Narrative Essay: Persuasive essay speech. Example Of Argumentative Essay Paragraph Terbaru. Grade 8 Speech Unit Narrative Speeches: Just like a personal. Speeches Essay English Advanced - Year 12 HSC Thinkswap. College essay: How to write a speech essay. Speech Writing - 8 Examples, Format, Sample Examples. Speech Sample 1. Example of Speech Essay - LewisabbCasey. Sample speeches - drugerreport732.web.fc2.com. Sample Of Simple Speech Essay : 10 Speech Examples for Elementary .... 3 minute persuasive speech examples. 57 3 minute persuasive speech .... Examples Of Speech Essay Telegraph. Custom Writing Service www.fuste.pt. presentation speech examples free indirect speech examples Kellydli. Speech Sample 2. Definition Essay: Samples of argumentative essay writing. Pin on your essay. Essay writing speech - The Writing Center.. FREE 16 Speech Writing Samples amp; Templates in PDF. Example of short persuasive speech. Persuasive Speech Outline .... Sample Speeches For Students Classles Democracy. Different Types of Speeches Essay Example Topics and Well Written .... Expository essay: Argumentative speech examples for high school. 50 Top Graduation Speech Ideas amp; Examples ᐅ TemplateLab. explanatory speech examples - Google Search Informative essay .... Speech Essay PT3 amp; Contoh BI BEST EXAMPLE. Speech essay format. 10 Essay Writing Examples amp; Samples. 2019-03-04. Inspirational Speech - 5 Examples, Format, Sample Examples. Example Of Persuasive Speech / Paragraph paper. How to Write a Good .... How to write speech essay. Speech Analysis Essay Example. 2019-01-09 Essay Speech Sample Essay Speech Sample. Speech essay format. 10 Essay Writing Examples amp; Samples. 2019-03-04
Informal Fallacies
Enterline Design Services LLC/iStock/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the various fallacies of support, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
2. Describe the various fallacies of relevance, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
3. Describe the various fallacies of clarity, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
We can conceive of logic as providing us with the best tools for seeking truth. If our goal is to seek truth, then we must be clear that the task isnot limited to the formation of true beliefs based on a solid logical foundation, for the task also involves learning to avoid forming falsebeliefs. Therefore, just as it is important to learn to employ good reasoning, it is also important to learn to avoid bad reasoning.
Toward this end, this chapter will focus on fallacies. Fallacies are errors in reasoning; more specifically, they are common patterns ofreasoning with a high likelihood of leading to false conclusions. Logical fallacies often seem like good reasoning because they resembleperfectly legitimate argument forms. For example, the following is a perfectly valid argument:
If you live in Paris, then you live in France.
You live in Paris.
Therefore, you live in France.
Assuming that both of the premises are true, it logically follows that the conclusion must be true. The following argument is very similar:
If you live in Paris, then you live in France.
You live in France.
Therefore, you live in Paris.
This second argument, however, is invalid; there are plenty of other places to live in France. This is a common formal fallacy known asaffirming the consequent. Chapter 4 discussed how this fallacy was based on an incorrect logical form. This chapter will focus on informalfallacies, fallacies whose errors are not so much a matter of form but of content. The rest of this chapter will cover some of the most commonand important fallacies, with definitions and examples. Learning about fallacies can be a lot of fun, but be warned: Once you begin noticingfallacies, you may start to see them everywhere.
Before we start, it is worth noting a few things. First, there are many, many fallacies. This chapter will consider only a sampling of some of themost well-known fallacies. Second, there is a lot of overlap between fallacies. Reasonable people can interpret the same errors as differentfallacies. Focus on trying to understand both interpretations rather than on insisting that only one can be right. Third, different philosophersoften have different terminology for the same fallacies and make different distinctions among them. Therefore, you may find that others usedifferent terminology for the fallacies that we will learn about in this chapter. Not to worry—it is the ideas here that are most important: Ourgoal is to learn to identi.
Social Justice as a Form of Discourse Impacting Identity for Action.docxwhitneyleman54422
Social Justice as a Form of Discourse Impacting Identity for Action
By Philip S. Mirci, Ph.D. (2015)Introduction
Richard Paul (1992) wrote:
Because we do not come to our experience with a blank slate for a mind, because our thinking is already, at any given moment, moving in a direction, because we can form new ideas, beliefs, and patterns of thought only through the scaffolding of our previously formed thought, it is essential that we learn to think critically in environments in which a variety of competing ideas are taken seriously. … Knowledge is discovered by thinking, analyzed by thinking, organized by thinking, transformed by thinking… There is no way to take the thinking out of knowledge, or the struggle out of thinking, just as there is no way to create a neat and tidy step-by-step path to knowledge that all minds can mindlessly follow … But thinking requires counter-thinking, opposition and challenge, as well as support. We need reasons meaningful to us, some persuasive logic, to move our minds from one set of ideas or beliefs to another. In other words, we must “argue” ourselves out of our present thinking and into thinking that is more or less novel to us if we are to gain genuine knowledge [Critical thinking: what every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world. Santa Rosa, CA: The Foundation for Critical Thinking, p. xi].
The search for truth and knowledge is one of the finest attributes of man ― though often it is most loudly voiced by those who strive for it the least.
The world we have made as a result of the level of thinking we have done thus far creates problems that cannot be solved at the same level of thinking at which we created them.
Constructivism, as a learning theory, was consistent with neuroscience research: the brain makes sense of experience by accessing its own existing knowledge base in order to interpret that experience. Furthermore, one’s identity is connected to this sense-making process. Thus, one’s own knowledge about self, others, and the world is limited. Intellectual humility is the discipline of bringing this awareness to different methods of knowing. Stephen Freeman (2000) summarized three different methods of knowing that were first stated by Charles Peirce in 1940:
The first method of knowing, the method of tenacity, states that people hold firm to truths they “know” are true. In establishing these truths there may be a tendency to omit evidence that does not support our beliefs and to find and include that, which does. This represents the well-known problem of objectivity. Frequent repetition or re-indoctrination of these assumptions or truths enhances their validity. This, simply stated, means one finds what one looks for…
The second method of knowing is the method of authority or established belief. This method has the weight of tradition and public sanction behind it. Many of the things we think we know have been handed down by tradition. People have also .
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3. OBJECTIVES
Discuss the philosophical bases of knowing the
truth.
Differentiate opinion from truth.
Act with self confidence in sharing own ideas and
conclusions
Practice concern for others by respecting their
own opinions.
4. Philosophy was born out of
Man’s desire to know, to
interpret and to understand
the world.
It came to being a persistent
attempts to acquire real
knowledge and truth.
6. Activity 1: Complete the phrase
I know that ……………………………….
I know why ……………………………….
I know how ……………………………….
KNOWLEDGE
7. It pertains to the
Ideas and beliefs
that we know to
be true.
8. There are also statements that are
not evidently or immediately know
to be true.
We say that man has a knowledge
of a thing?
Identify
Give examples
Point out
Relate or associates
9. Rene Descartes said that
doubt everything can be
doubted.
In Philosophy systematic doubt is
employed to help to determine the
truth
10. Basis of Determining the Truth
Lifted from the book of Roberto Abella
1. A belief is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of
one’s senses.
Lets investigate the nature of knowledge by simple giving
examples starting the very obvious thing that we know about our
self.
11. Basis of Determining the Truth
Lifted from the book of Roberto Abella
2. A belief or statement is true if it based on facts.
If your are claim for something then you have to use all the facts
that will guide you in searching for truth.
3. Getting a consensus or having people agree on a common belief.
This is another way of determining of what is true. But this
approach has certain limitations in getting everyone’s to agree
on something may not make the belief true. However you may
use other evidences to determine its truthfulness
12. Basis of Determining the Truth
Lifted from the book of Roberto Abella
4. A statement shall be proven through an action to determine its
truth.
Example: If you brag about your skills in baking cakes. You
should know how to do it and the quality of the product will
speak for itself.
5. Claims and beliefs should be subjected to test in order to
determine truth.
The claims should be subjected to prove to its validity.
13. Things to remember…
Truth lies the heart of any inquiries.
Discovering truth about oneself is a
first step in exploring knowledge and
truth.
14. Basis of Determining the Truth
1. A belief is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of
one’s senses.
2. A belief or statement is true if it based on facts.
3. Getting a consensus or having people agree on a common
belief.
4. A statement shall be proven through an action to determine its
truth.
5. Claims and beliefs should be subjected to test in order to
determine truth.
Systematic doubt and Senses
Facts
Action
Test
Other evidences agreed by group of people
15.
16. The first concept about truth is
rooted in an ancient Greek
Philosophy’s concept of knowledge
as “justified, true belief” This
concept rest on three conditions:
(1) True things can be known,
(2)something is true because you
believe it to be true, and that (3)
there is justification for such belief.
17. Theories in Determining the Truth
1. Correspondence Theory states
that something is true if it
corresponds to reality or the
actual state of affairs. This theory
assumes a direct relationship
between an idea and reality to be
able to take a statement as
“facts”
18. Theories in Determining the Truth
1. Correspondence Theory
Analyze the following headlines
using the Correspondence Theory.
1. Manananggal terrorizes
Mantalongon, Dalaguete.
2. Man gives birth to twins.
19. Theories in Determining the Truth
2. Coherence Theory proposes that something is true if it makes
sense when placed in a certain situation or context. Based on this
theory, there is a possibility that there will be varied “truth” from
different perspective. An idea is true because it makes sense in its
own context, and that it has a certain degree of consistency which
renders it truthful. Coherence and consistency are also important in the
context of law and politics. Laws make sense if they conform to
previous laws and to a set of general principles like justice, democracy, and liberty.
Within a democratic society, only democratic laws and practices are accepted to be
true. Relativism is a philosophical concept which contends that there are no absolute
truths. An idea or principles is only true within a particular context, it differs with
every knowing individual and thus, it is possible for alternative truth to exist in various
context or situation
20. Theories in Determining the Truth
2. Coherence Theory
Analyze the following headlines using
the Coherence Theory.
Pope Francis Says Abortion is an
acceptable practice for Catholics.
21. Theories in Determining the Truth
3. Constructivist Theory holds that knowledge
is shaped by social forces and influenced by
culture and history. What is true, or what a
person considers true, is shaped by the
structures within the individuals society and
culture. The constructivist perspective also
believes that knowledge is gained as part of
social experience and requires interaction and
collaboration.
22. Theories in Determining the Truth
3. Constructivist Theory
Analyze the question using the
Constructivist Theory.
1. How important family here in the
Philippines?
23. Theories in Determining the Truth
4. Consensus Theory views knowledge as based
on agreement, and that something is true if
almost everyone agrees that it is true. Certain
beliefs, traditions, and practices are often that
product of consensus as they may be imposed
by influential groups or institutions such as
government or religious organizations. It is also
used to determine the truth of scientific claims,
where experts must agree on a certain
phenomenon before it can be established as
true.
24. Theories in Determining the Truth
4. Consensus Theory
List down ideas and statements you know that are
primarily based on consensus. Identify the
authority or group which arrived at this consensus.
Use the table below.
Idea, Statement Group or Authority
25. Theories in Determining the Truth
5. Pragmatic Theory holds the view that
something is true if we can put it into practice or is
useful in real life. It also believes that ideas should
be continually tested to confirm their validity. It
related to the concept of verificationism,
considers that ideas must be verified using the
senses or experience. The scientific method, where
experiments are designed to test hypothesis or
confirm conclusions, is an example of a pragmatic
approach in determining truth.
26. Theories in Determining the Truth
3. Pragmatic Theory
Analyze the question using the Coherence
Theory.
1. Why is testing and verification
important in determining the truth?
27. Theory Something is true if… We can determine truth by…
Correspondence
Theory
It corresponds to reality
Determine if the idea has a basis
in reality or is factual
Coherence
Theory
It makes sense when placed in a
certain context or situation
Looking for consistency when
placed in a certain context
Constructivist
Theory
It is shaped by society, culture,
and history
Looking at background influences
and events and determine how
these shaped ideas and truth
Consensus
Theory
Almost everyone believes it to be
true
Looking at the decisions and
views of recognized authorities
and influential institutions
Pragmatic Theory
We can put it into practice in real
life
Subjecting the idea to testing and
verification
28. 1. The sun is the center of the solar system.
2. Asia is the largest continent in the world.
3. God made the world in seven days.
4. Man has the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
5. A person must always consider the interest of his family before
his own happiness
6. Citizen have the right to take up arms and
overthrow an oppressive government.
7. The President has done very little to uphold democracy and
look after the interest of the Filipino people
29. If you would be a real seeker after truth.
It is necessary that at least once in your
life you doubt as far as possible , all things
-Rene Descartes-
32. Other things we consider in determining the truth
In determining the truth of any statement or claim, we must be
familiar with how ideas are presented. Ideas and claims are often
presented in the form of arguments, and these arguments are phrased
in such a way that they seem reasonable. Arguments is a series of
statement which provides reasons that convince a reader or listener
that an opinion is truthful. A number of arguments, however, may be
based on faulty argumentation, and these are called fallacies.
Fallacies or errors in reasoning may be intentional, as the person
making the claim is desperate to convince you to accept his or her
argument. The following are examples of fallacies.
33. Other things we consider in determining the truth
Argument made an assumption that a certain claim is yet to
determine.
Argument is not the same with fighting because fighting expresses
anger and hurt without being sensitive of your choice of words. So, if
you don’t know how to argue with reason and logic then that is what
do we call fighting. However, argument is coming thru an agreement.
If you don’t know how to do it right then it can’t resolve any conflict.
Logic is a branch of philosophy that focuses on arguments.
34. Fallacy Characteristic Example
1. Ad hominem
(against the person)
attacking the person focus our
attention on people rather than
on arguments or evidence
“Why would I believe? You’re not
even the smartest person in our
section?”
2. Ad baculum
(Appeal to force)
using the threat of force or an
undesirable event to advance an
argument
“My father is known to be the
richest man in this town, I’m sure
you know what he is capable of.
Don’t you dare mess up with me!”
3. Ad Misericordiam
(Appeal to emotion)
Strong appeal to sympathy and
pity
“Sir please, accept my late
submission of modules. I spend the
last five days, with our hours of
sleep each day, working extra time
on it.”
35. Fallacy Characteristic Example
4. Ad populum
(Appeal to the
people/popular)
the idea is presented
must true because many
people believe it
“Majority of boys at your age
already has a girlfriend, you
should go and find”
5. Appeal to tradition
the idea is acceptable
because it has been true
for a long time
"Marriage should be between a
man and a woman. It has been
so for a long time in this
country, it should remain so
today and in the future"
6. Begging the question
assuming the thing or
idea to be proven is true;
also known as "circular
argument
"I have a right to free speech,
therefore, you cannot stop me
from talking”
36. Fallacy Characteristic Example
7. Post Hoc, Ergo Propter
Hoc (Cause - and – effect)
assuming a "cause-and-
effect" relationship
between unrelated events
"Ever since you bought that
sweater, everything has
been going wrong in your
life. You should get rid of it.”
8. Fallacy of composition
assuming that what is
true for a part is true for
the whole
“because all of the
components of this car are
light and easy to carry, then
the car itself must also be
light and easy to carry.”
9. Fallacy of division
assuming that what is
true for the whole is true
for its parts
"You come from a family of
doctors and intellectual!
Surely you can do better in
this course”
37. Fallacy Characteristic Example
10. Slippery slope
Assuming a very small
action will lead to
extreme outcomes
“If we allow our 16 year old
to have a boyfriend, then
what’s next? A baby?”.
11. Ad Verecundiam
(appeal to authority)
Insisting that the claim is
true simple because a
valid authority or expert
on the issue said it was
true, without any other
supporting evidence
offered
“UFOs do not exist because
the astronomer Carl Sagan
said it”.
38. One should also know the difference between fact and
opinion. Facts are generally established truths that are
verifiable and do not easily change from one situation to
another. Opinions, on the other hand, are more subjective
and may express certain views a beliefs. When looking at
opinions, be aware of bias or the personal views of the
personal views of the person presenting it. Biases are not
necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer to a prejudice in
favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with
another, usually in a way considered to be unfair. The most
common biases are numerated below
39.
40. Bias Characteristic Example
Correspondence
bias or attribution
effect
tendency to judge a person's
personality by his or her actions,
without regard for external factors
or influences
"These soldiers who fought in the
war are all bloodthirsty murderers”
Confirmation bias
tendency to look for and readily
accept information to fit with
one's own beliefs or views and to
reject ideas or views that go
against it
"How can I accept his view that
there is no God? I am a Christians?
Framing
focusing on a certain aspect of a
problem while ignoring other
aspects
"Preliminary evidences have still
not pointed out the actual cause of
the plane crash, but investigation
are currently focusing on the
possibility of pilot error.
41. Bias Characteristic Example
Hindsight
the tendency to see past events as
predicable, or to ascribe a pattern to
historical events
"Magellan's assault on Mactan Island was
foolhardy venture, made by an
overconfident, careless man who
underestimated the valor of the native
Filipinos
Conflict of
interest
a person or group is connected to or
has a vested interest in the issue
being discussed
"As the President of the company and the
daughter of the accused, I believed I have
the right to express my opinion on the
issue of his alleged corrupt practice;.
Cultural bias
analyzing an event or issue based on
one's culture standards
"I do not agree with his western practice
of placing aged parents in retirement
homes. We Filipinos take care of our
family members
45. ACTIVITY
Test 1: Direction: Fill each blank with correct answer. Write your answer on the blank
provided.
_________ 1. It is shaped by society, culture, and history.
_________ 2. It uses threat of force or an undesirable event to advance an argument
_________ 3. The idea is presented must true because many people believe it
_________ 4. It makes sense when placed in a certain context or situation.
_________ 5. Assuming that what is true for the whole is true for its parts
_________ 6. We can put it into practice in real life.
_________ 7. Strong appeal to sympathy and pity
_________ 8. Attacking the person focus our attention on people rather than on arguments
or evidence
_________ 9. It corresponds to reality.
_________ 10. The idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time
46. ACTIVITY
Test 2
DIRECTION: Write “TRUE” IF THE STATEMENT EXPRESSES OPINION AND “OPINION” IF IT
EXPRESSES A TRUTH.
_________ 11. The use of illegal drugs is prohibited.
_________ 12. Drug addicts deserve to get a shoot to kill order.
_________ 13. President Duterte is the best Filipino President ever.
_________ 14. The National Telecommunication Commission stops ABS-CBN’s operation due
to an expired franchise.
_________ 15. Cigarette smoking can cause lung cancer.
_________ 16. Mars is the fourth planet from the sun.
_________ 17. Filipinos celebrate Christmas day every 25th of December.
_________ 18. Labradors are the best king of dogs to have as a pet.
_________ 19. Orange taste better than mango.
_________ 20. Covid-19 virus is experienced worldwide.