2. Let us take a
look at the
following
statements and
determine
which one
states fact or
opinion.
1. It takes me 30 minutes to walk from my home to school.
2. Living near the school is better because we do not have to spend much for
transportation.
3. My sister ate the last piece of pizza pie.
4. My sister is a selfish person because she ate the last piece of pizza pie and did
not share it with me.
5. The policeman firmly pushed the suspect to his knees and placed him in
handcuffs.
6. The aggressive manner by which the policeman arrested the suspect is an
example of the brutality that characterizes our police force.
Statements 1, 3, and 5 are more factual than statements 2, 4, and 6.
Using the philosophical tools we learned, they fit into the category of facts since they contain ideas
or information that are easily verifiable.
While statements 2, 4, and 6 could be considered as opinions.
These statements go beyond providing facts.
It also provide conclusions or perspectives regarding certain situations.
Opinions are also the bases for making arguments and convincing people that a
certain claim is a fact.
3. Fact is something concrete that can be
proven. You can find facts in legal
records, scientific findings,
encyclopedias, atlases, etc. In other
words, facts are the truth and are
accepted as such.
Opinion is less concrete. It's a view
formed in the mind of a person about a
particular issue. In other words, it is
what someone believes or thinks, and
is not necessarily the truth. Also, note in
the examples below how facts are the
same for everybody, but opinions can
differ quite widely.
4. Examples of Opinion
• Ann can have the opinion that Italian food tastes best, while Joe
has the opinion that French food is ideal.
• Sue can have the opinion that reading is boring, while Mike can
have the opinion that reading is fun.
• Penny can have the opinion that cold weather is better, while Tim
can prefer hot weather.
5.
6. What I Know
Direction: Give a brief answer to the following question. Write your answer in
the space provided.
1. Give 5 examples of Factual statements and 5 examples of opinion.
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. What’s In
• Opinions are statements that go beyond providing
facts.
• A conclusion is a judgment based on certain facts.
• Beliefs are statements that expresses convictions that
are not easily and clearly explained by facts.
• Explanations are statements that assume the claim to
be true and provide reasons why the statement is true.
• Arguments are series of statements that provide
reasons to convince the reader or listener that a claim
or opinion is truthful.
• Fallacies are arguments based on faulty reasoning.
• Bias is disproportionate weight in favor of or against
an idea or thing, usually in a way that is closed-
minded, prejudicial, or unfair.
8. • The facts that form the bases of a conclusion may not be disputed
but the conclusion itself could still be contested or questioned. To
judge the truthfulness of belief, we must also consider things such a
person’s experiences and views.
•
Facts are statements that are observed to be real or truthful. Claims
are statements that require further examination to determine their
truthfulness. Some arguments may contain fallacies. We must be
aware of the various kinds of fallacies as these affect the validity of
arguments. Opinions are often influenced by bias. We must be aware
of biases so that we can objectively and critically examine points of
view.
9. The following are examples of fallacies:
Fallacy Characteristics
Ad hominem
attacking the person presenting the argument instead of the
argument itself.
Appeal to
force/
Argumentum
Ad Baculum
using the threat of force or an undesirable event to advance an
argument.
Appeal to
emotions/
Appeal to pity
using emotions such as pity or sympathy.
Appeal to the
popularity
the idea is presented as acceptable because a lot of people
accept it.
10. The following are examples of fallacies:
Fallacy Situation
Ad hominem
Politician A will say that you should not vote the Politician B because
Politician B is not trustworthy as he/she is not fluent in speaking
Hindi.
Appeal to
force
The robber who threatens a person's life will probably win
the argument.
Appeal to
emotions
Suppose you failed your last exam but you ask your professor to
give you another chance. When your professor asked for the
reason behind your failure, you said him that your grandmother
has passed away suddenly, and you suffered from a major viral
infection right after her funeral.
Appeal to the “I know it’s true because everybody says so” or “everyone thinks
11. The following are examples of fallacies:
Fallacy Characteristics
Appeal to
tradition
the idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time.
Begging the
question
assuming the thing or idea to be proven is true; also kown as
a circular argument
Confusing
Cause-and-
effect
assuming “cause-and-effect” relationship between unrelated
events
Fallacy of
composition
assuming that what is true of a part is true for the whole
Fallacy of
division
assuming that what is true for the whole is true for its parts.
12. The following are examples of fallacies:
Fallacy Situations
Appeal to
tradition
No one in this family has ever been divorced; therefore, you need
to work out your marital problems. We don't get divorced!
Begging the
question
When the teenager asks her father who made him the boss, the
father responds “I’m in charge because what I say goes!”
Confusing
Cause-and-
effect
Jennifer comes to class just as the bell rings every day. Jennifer's
arrival at class causes the bell to ring.
Fallacy of
composition
If one runner runs faster he will win the race and get the prize.
So, if all runners run faster they all get the prize.
Fallacy of
division
A is part of B. B has X attributes. Therefore A has attributes too.
13. The following are examples of biases:
Bias Characteristics
Correspondence
bias
or attribution effect
tendency to judge a person’s personality by his
or her actions, without regard for the external
factors or influence.
Confirmation bias
tendency to look for and readily accept
information which fits one’s own beliefs or views
and to reject ideas or views that go
against it.
14. The following are examples of biases:
Bias Characteristics
Framing
focusing on a certain aspect of a problem while
ignoring other aspects.
Hindsight
- the tendency to see past events as
predictable, or to ascribe a pattern to historical
events.
Conflict of interest
a person or group is connected to or has a
vested interest in the issue being discussed.
Cultural bias
analyzing an event or issue based on one’s
cultural standards.
16. Direction: Give a brief answer to the following question. Write your
answer on the space provided.
1. How will you determine the truth from an opinion?
17. What’s In
• An understanding of opinions and facts and the mean to distinguish one
from the other can further improve our understanding and appreciation
of varied views and ideas.
• The ability to determine truth goes hand in hand with the holistic
perspective and enables us to make wiser decisions, especially in
choosing then ideas and views which we find acceptable.
• A critical mind aided by philosophy can help us and can guide us in
making decisions and actions when we faced with a problem.
• Philosophy can help us determine ideas that are truthful and
acceptable, which we can use to form our own views regarding certain
matters
18. • For Maboloc and Pascua (2008) critical thinking is a lifelong process
of self assessment that further consists of:
Defining, analyzing and devising solutions,
Arriving at reasonable and informed conclusions
Applying understanding and knowledge to new and different problems.
Willingness to say “I don’t know.”
• The attributes of a critical thinker include;
Looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs
Adjusts opinion
Looks for proof
Examines the problem
Rejects irrelevant and innocent information
20. • A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or
drawing conclusions from a statement using various philosophical
methods, such as: Socratic, dialectic, scientific, and historical.
• When you evaluate information, it is very important to distinguish
between fact and opinion. How do we know if something is true?
• Philosophers emphasize the importance of belief as a basis for
determining truth. It is said that there are instances when we have to
unlearn something so that we may learn anew. Philosophers
questioned what they knew and even analyzed their methods of
knowing in order to understand themselves and the world much
better.
• The discussion on truth is part of philosophical studies on knowledge
where philosophers explore the nature of knowledge and the ways of
knowing
21. The Socratic Method
It is a way of thinking that involves three steps:
• 1) Give an initial definition or opinion.
• 2) Ask a question that raises an exception to that definition or
opinion.
• 3) Give a better definition or opinion.
• Repeat these steps until you achieve a full understanding of the
concept. If you cannot discover a perfect definition, you will at least
achieve rational ignorance (i.e. aporia). That is, you will know what it
isn’t and you will know why you do not know (i.e. Socratic Wisdom)
22. The Socratic Method
Consider an example:
• Step 1 (Define): A triangle is a shape.
• Step 2 (Exception Question): This isn’t a sufficient definition for
triangle because there are many shapes that are not triangles (e.g.
circles). This definition of triangle includes too much because it does
not exclude all non-triangles. Socrates would ask, “Is a circle a
triangle?”
• Step 3 (New and Improved Definition): A triangle is a closed figure
consisting of three line segments forming three interior angles that
add up to 180 degrees.
23. Dialectic
Method
• The dialectical
method is a process
that raises people in
knowledge step by
step and reaches its
end by
comprehending or
contemplating the
idea of Good.
24. Scientific Method
• a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since
the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement,
and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of
hypotheses
25. Historical Method
• The term refers to the collection of techniques and guidelines
that historians use to research and write histories of the
past. Secondary sources, primary sources and material evidence such
as that derived from archaeology may all be drawn on, and the
historian's skill lies in identifying these sources, evaluating their
relative authority, and combining their testimony appropriately in
order to construct an accurate and reliable picture of past events and
environments.
26. Direction: Complete the table below. Apply systematic doubt in analyzing
the statement. Write your answer on the box provided.
I am alive
I have a body
I can breathe
27. Methodic Doubt
• The “doubt” as a method of philosophy is called themethodological
doubt or indubitable or sometimes calledCartesianDoubtadvocated
byRene Descartes(1596-1650), a FrenchPhilosopher
• The Methodic Doubt is a systematic process of withholding
acceptance as to the truth or falsehood of beliefs until they were
demonstrated or rationally proven to be true or false. It is a
philosophical process of doubting or being skeptical about the truth
of a person’s beliefs. It
• Basically, the Methodic Doubt is a way of looking for certainty—for
certain, indubitable truths—by methodically, although tentatively,
doubting everything.
28. What is It
Both the Socratic and dialectic method are based on a discussion between two or
more people who may carry differing views but wish to pursue the truth by
seeking an agreement with one another. Meanwhile, the scientific method is a
process of determining truth or knowledge through experimentation, inductive
and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing.
The scientific method, also called empirical method, is a process of determining
truth or knowledge through experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning,
and hypothesis or theory testing
Logic is the truth based on reasoning and critical thinking. It includes analysis and
construction of arguments. It serves as path to freedom from half-truths and
deception.
30. • Deductive Reasoning
In this type of reasoning, conclusion comes first, followed by main
points, and the last will be the supporting data, facts, examples, and
evidences. General idea comes first before the specific or particular
idea.
• Inductive Reasoning
In this type of reasoning, supporting data, facts, examples, and
evidences come first followed by the main points and conclusion will
be the last part. This is the vice versa of the deductive reasoning
because particular idea comes first before the general idea.
31. Directions: Read the conversation below and answer the following
question. Write your answer on the space provided.
Editor's Notes
The term Ad Hominem means, ‘attacking the person’ or ‘against the person.’ In this fallacy, the person does not directly attack or criticize the views of another person, instead, they attack or criticise the personal characteristics of the other person such as physical appearance, ethnicity, or other traits. These types of attacks are flawed as they do not link to the real argument, and distract the other people from the logical argument.
Appeal to Force - relies on force or intimidation (scare tactics) to persuade an audience to accept a proposition or take a particular course of action.
It's also sometimes referred to as the "appeal to fear" fallacy. Essentially, the argument appeals to the possibility of undesired, negative consequences that are often - though not always - tied to some sort of frightening or violent outcome that listeners will wish to avoid.
Appeal to emotions - The appeal to pity fallacy occurs when someone tries to strengthen his/her arguments by manipulating or distracting the other person by provoking his/her emotions.
The appeal to emotions fallacy occurs when a person attempts to use emotion to convince people that their opinion or argument is correct.
Appeal to popularity - The appeal to popularity fallacy is when a person uses the fact that many people believe something as evidence for its truthfulness.
g
Ad Hominem - Ad hominem arguments are generally observed in politics, which are commonly known as ‘mudslinging.’ These arguments makes it easier for politicians to manipulate the opinions of the voters regarding the opposition parties.
Well, if we think logically, there is no relevant link between these two factors, i.e., a person who can speak Hindi fluently does not mean that he/she will be a trustworthy politician. Hence, this is an example of the ad hominem fallacy.
People often confuse the ad hominem fallacy with the insult. Remember we can not term anything as ad hominem fallacy if is not an argument. For example, if we say that ‘all students in section B are liars’ then it is an insult, but if we say a boy name Jay can not become the team leader as he belongs to section B, then it is the example of ad hominem fallacy.
John sees his doctor driving very badly one day and decides that he must be a bad doctor because he is a bad driver. John decides that his doctor is bad at his job because of his bad driving. John is committing the ad hominem fallacy because he is not basing his judgment on facts relating to the doctor’s professional skills. Instead, John is basing his judgment on the driving abilities of the doctor which are unrelated to his capabilities as a doctor. It is logically possible to be a bad driver and a good doctor.
Appeal to Force - The robber who threatens a person's life will probably win the argument.
But there are more subtle appeals to force such as the veiled threat that one's job is on the line.“
If X decides not to support Y, then Z will occur (Z is the threatening element against X).
appeal to emotions - Suppose you failed your last exam but you ask your professor to give you another chance. When your professor asked for the reason behind your failure, you said him that your grandmother has passed away suddenly, and you suffered from a major viral infection right after her funeral. The recovery took a whole month and you barely had any time to prepare for your exam, hence you need grace marks in that exam. Well, if this story is true, then chances are that your professor may feel for your situation and he will give you another chance to appear for that exam.
Imagine a person is arrested in a certain case. The person as per his crime is supposed to get the jail for a year. When the judge sees that the person is physically disabled and walking with the help of the walker, it may provoke the human emotions of the judges. Although the judge has to abide by all the laws and regulations, he/she is more likely to fall victim to the appeal to pity fallacy.
A defendant in court says they shouldn’t have to pay a fine because they feel terrible for what they did.
Young lovers are trespassing and kissing on a balcony but the security guard leaves them alone because they look so happy.
A soft drink company doesn’t promote their product’s taste or nutritional value. Instead, they say that the drink will make you feel happy!
A bad boyfriend tells you he knows he is not the best partner, but you love him, so you should forgive him.
Appeal to popularity - Everyone says that it's okay to lie as long as you don't get caught.
It might be against the law to drink when you are 18 years old, but everyone does it, so it's okay.
75% of the population believes that Hillary Clinton is corrupt, and I just can't vote for a liar.
There must be some truth to the fact that global warming is a hoax because approximately 25% of the population believes that it is a hoax!
Everyone already believes that the defendant killed her husband, and that many people can't be wrong.
You definitely need to buy those new boots. Everyone is wearing them!
g
Appeal to Tradition is a type of logical fallacy in which something is accepted as true or better because it's the "way it's always been done." There is no evidence that a specific belief or course of action actually is better. It is just believed to be better because it is the traditional belief or course of action.
Begging the question - Begging the question is a fallacy in which a claim is made and accepted to be true, but one must accept the premise to be true for the claim to be true. This is also known as circular reasoning. Essentially, one makes a claim based on evidence that requires one to already accept that the claim is true.
Cause and Effect - is a fallacy that occurs when someone claims that because two things typically occur together that one causes the other. However, the two things do not have a cause-effect relationship.
Appeal to Tradition
Church should begin at 11am because that's the time that we have always begun the church service.
The cheerleaders should be allowed to wear their uniforms to school on Fridays because that's the way we have always done it. It is a tradition at this school.
No one in this family has ever been divorced; therefore, you need to work out your marital problems. We don't get divorced!
Everyone in our family has gone to the University of Tennessee, so you need to apply to UT.
Gay marriage is wrong because marriage has always been between a man and a woman.
We have always gotten out of school before Memorial Day, so you cannot change the school calendar to have students attend school after Memorial Day.
My family has always gotten together for Christmas on Christmas night. I cannot ask them to move it now that we are married because that's the way they have always done it.
The town has always had a parade on the 4th of July and it has always proceeded through the town square. We cannot have construction this summer because we cannot change the route of the parade.
Begging the question
Many parents (who are perhaps too lazy to explain why they’re in charge), simply tell their children that they are in charge because … they are in charge! That’s just the way it is.
- If you didn’t want to beg the question, you’d have to provide an actual explanation about why they’re in charge, rather than just reiterating
- “what I say goes.” A better response would be “I’m in charge because I have more life experience so I can make better decisions than you.”
- Unfortunately, parents usually want to be dismissive rather than reasoning with their children, which leads to a lot of ‘begging the question’.
2. Everyone wants the new iPhone because it is the hottest new gadget on the market!
3. God is real because the Bible says so, and the Bible is from God.
4. Killing people is wrong, so the death penalty is wrong.
5. Smoking cigarettes can kill you because cigarettes are deadly.
6. The rights of the criminal are just as important as the rights of the victim. Everyone's rights are equal.
7. Fruits and vegetables are part of a healthy diet. After all, a healthy eating plan includes fruits and vegetables.
8. Student: Why didn't I receive full credit on my essay? Teacher: Because your paper did not meet the requirements for full credit.
9.The greatest thing we can do is to love each other. Love is better than any other emotion.
3. Confusing Cause and Effect
- Jennifer comes to class just as the bell rings every day. Jennifer's arrival at class causes the bell to ring.
- Depression causes sickness. People who are terminally ill are also often depressed. So, depression can cause illness.
- The type of music that is being produced these days is causing the youth of this nation to be corrupt.
- Our classroom smells funny. Mr. Harris is always in the classroom. Therefore, Mr. Harris is the reason that the classroom smells funny.
- Many people who drink coffee are also thin. Therefore, coffee causes one to lose weight.
- Many people who are involved in community service also do well in college. So, volunteering for community services causes you to have better grades in college.
- Sarah liked playing with her brother's army toys when she was a child. Sarah joined the army as an adult. Playing with army toys makes you want to join the army.
4. Fallacy of Composition
- The students of CSU come from the different barrios in Agusan Del Norte. Analisa is from CSU. Analisa is from the different barrios of Agusan Del Norte.
- Hydrogen and Oxygen are gases. Therefore, H2O is a gas.
Trees are made of atoms, and atoms are not visible to the eye. Therefore, trees are not visible to the either.
Something must be true of the whole because it is true to some parts of the whole.
5. Fallacy of division –
NaCl is not poisonous. Therefore, Na and Cl are not poisonous too.
The ball is blue. Therefore all the atoms of this ball is blue too.
An airplane is made of Seattle. Therefore all parts of the airplane are made of Seattle too.
The ocean when seen as a whole is blue. Therefore each drop of water individually is blue in collor.
Your family is weird. That means you are also weird.
