The document summarizes key aspects of human digestion and nutrition. It describes the five stages of food processing: ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, and egestion. It details the organs and structures involved in digestion, including the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, and pancreas. It explains the roles of enzymes and hormones in breaking down food and regulating digestion. The document also covers nutrient absorption in the small intestine and discusses nutrition, including energy sources, vitamins, minerals, and essential nutrients required in the diet.
The liver performs several important functions:
1. It regulates blood glucose levels and lipid levels.
2. It forms low density lipoproteins and converts excess cholesterol into bile salts.
3. It stores glucose as glycogen, as well as iron, vitamin A, and vitamin D.
IB Biology 3.5 genetic modifcation and biotechnologyBob Smullen
Here is a possible design for an experiment to assess one factor affecting the rooting of stem cuttings:
- Plant species chosen: Coleus canina (common name cut-leaf coleus), which is known to form roots readily from stem cuttings.
- Factor to be tested: Effect of auxin treatment on root formation.
- Materials: Coleus canina stem cuttings, water, rooting hormone powder containing auxin (IBA).
- Methods: Take stem cuttings of uniform size and remove lower leaves. Dip half the cuttings in auxin powder solution and half in water only. Insert all cuttings in potting soil. Maintain soil moisture and observe over 4 weeks.
The document discusses various topics related to human nutrition:
- It describes the essential nutrients that must be consumed as part of our diet, including water, lipids, some amino acids, and vitamins and minerals.
- It then covers digestion, including the roles of the stomach, small intestine, liver, and heart. The stomach aids in protein digestion through gastric juices. The small intestine completes digestion with enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver. The liver performs many functions including detoxification and production of proteins and bile. The heart pumps blood throughout the body.
This document discusses human nutrition and physiology. It outlines essential nutrients that cannot be produced by the body, including some amino acids, fatty acids, and minerals. It specifically discusses vitamin C and how humans cannot produce it. It also mentions essential fatty acids like omega-3 and omega-6 for brain and eye development. The document then discusses how calorimetry can be used to estimate the energy content of foods and compares the relative energy content of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Finally, it briefly mentions diabetes mellitus and some of its causes, symptoms, and related heart problems.
The document discusses several endocrine glands and hormones, including:
- The thyroid gland, which produces thyroxine to regulate metabolic rate. Thyroxine increases oxygen consumption and protein synthesis.
- The pancreas, which produces insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels through a negative feedback system. Insulin lowers blood glucose while glucagon raises it.
- The adrenal glands, which produce adrenaline during stressful situations to trigger the fight or flight response through various physiological effects.
This document discusses enzymes and how they control metabolism in cells. It provides details on how enzymes have an active site that binds to specific substrates, and how enzyme catalysis involves molecular motion and substrate collision with the active site. It describes how temperature, pH, and substrate concentration can affect enzyme activity, and includes graphs to illustrate these relationships. The document discusses enzyme inhibition, denaturation of enzymes, and industrial uses of immobilized enzymes. It also covers the production of lactose-free milk and provides guidance on designing an experiment to test the effects of various factors on enzyme activity.
The document discusses the roles and structures of the musculoskeletal system. It covers how bones and joints provide movement, support, and protection by acting as levers and allowing certain motions at synovial joints. Muscles work in antagonistic pairs across joints to flex and extend. Muscle fibers are made up of myofibrils containing sarcomeres, which contract through the sliding of actin and myosin filaments when calcium ions bind tropomyosin and troponin.
There are three main types of blood vessel that make up the circulatory system: arteries, capillaries, and veins. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart at high pressure, while veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart at low pressure. Capillaries allow for the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other materials between the blood and tissues due to their thin walls. The heart acts as a pump to circulate blood through two separate circuits - the pulmonary circulation to the lungs and systemic circulation to the rest of the body. Valves within the heart and veins ensure one-way blood flow.
The liver performs several important functions:
1. It regulates blood glucose levels and lipid levels.
2. It forms low density lipoproteins and converts excess cholesterol into bile salts.
3. It stores glucose as glycogen, as well as iron, vitamin A, and vitamin D.
IB Biology 3.5 genetic modifcation and biotechnologyBob Smullen
Here is a possible design for an experiment to assess one factor affecting the rooting of stem cuttings:
- Plant species chosen: Coleus canina (common name cut-leaf coleus), which is known to form roots readily from stem cuttings.
- Factor to be tested: Effect of auxin treatment on root formation.
- Materials: Coleus canina stem cuttings, water, rooting hormone powder containing auxin (IBA).
- Methods: Take stem cuttings of uniform size and remove lower leaves. Dip half the cuttings in auxin powder solution and half in water only. Insert all cuttings in potting soil. Maintain soil moisture and observe over 4 weeks.
The document discusses various topics related to human nutrition:
- It describes the essential nutrients that must be consumed as part of our diet, including water, lipids, some amino acids, and vitamins and minerals.
- It then covers digestion, including the roles of the stomach, small intestine, liver, and heart. The stomach aids in protein digestion through gastric juices. The small intestine completes digestion with enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver. The liver performs many functions including detoxification and production of proteins and bile. The heart pumps blood throughout the body.
This document discusses human nutrition and physiology. It outlines essential nutrients that cannot be produced by the body, including some amino acids, fatty acids, and minerals. It specifically discusses vitamin C and how humans cannot produce it. It also mentions essential fatty acids like omega-3 and omega-6 for brain and eye development. The document then discusses how calorimetry can be used to estimate the energy content of foods and compares the relative energy content of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Finally, it briefly mentions diabetes mellitus and some of its causes, symptoms, and related heart problems.
The document discusses several endocrine glands and hormones, including:
- The thyroid gland, which produces thyroxine to regulate metabolic rate. Thyroxine increases oxygen consumption and protein synthesis.
- The pancreas, which produces insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels through a negative feedback system. Insulin lowers blood glucose while glucagon raises it.
- The adrenal glands, which produce adrenaline during stressful situations to trigger the fight or flight response through various physiological effects.
This document discusses enzymes and how they control metabolism in cells. It provides details on how enzymes have an active site that binds to specific substrates, and how enzyme catalysis involves molecular motion and substrate collision with the active site. It describes how temperature, pH, and substrate concentration can affect enzyme activity, and includes graphs to illustrate these relationships. The document discusses enzyme inhibition, denaturation of enzymes, and industrial uses of immobilized enzymes. It also covers the production of lactose-free milk and provides guidance on designing an experiment to test the effects of various factors on enzyme activity.
The document discusses the roles and structures of the musculoskeletal system. It covers how bones and joints provide movement, support, and protection by acting as levers and allowing certain motions at synovial joints. Muscles work in antagonistic pairs across joints to flex and extend. Muscle fibers are made up of myofibrils containing sarcomeres, which contract through the sliding of actin and myosin filaments when calcium ions bind tropomyosin and troponin.
There are three main types of blood vessel that make up the circulatory system: arteries, capillaries, and veins. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart at high pressure, while veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart at low pressure. Capillaries allow for the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other materials between the blood and tissues due to their thin walls. The heart acts as a pump to circulate blood through two separate circuits - the pulmonary circulation to the lungs and systemic circulation to the rest of the body. Valves within the heart and veins ensure one-way blood flow.
Cardiac muscle tissue is unique to the heart and has a similar structure to skeletal muscle but works involuntarily like smooth muscle. Hardening of the arteries, called atherosclerosis, is caused by the formation of plaques on artery walls from factors like genetics, age, smoking, diet, and obesity. These plaques can trigger blood clots that block blood flow through arteries.
The document summarizes photosynthesis, including both the light-dependent and light-independent reactions. It explains that the light-dependent reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes and produce ATP and NADPH through the absorption of light by photosystems. The light-independent reactions take place in the chloroplast stroma and use ATP and NADPH to produce glucose through the Calvin cycle. The structure of the chloroplast is adapted to efficiently carry out these two stages of photosynthesis through the stacking of thylakoids and positioning of the stroma.
Cellular respiration ppt, describes generalities about energy and ATP, and the three stages of cellular respiration: Gylolisis, Krebs Cylce and Electron transport chain.
The document discusses the kidney and its role in osmoregulation. It describes how the kidney filters blood via nephrons, which contain a glomerulus and Bowman's capsule that allow for ultrafiltration. As fluid passes through the nephron, useful substances like water and ions are reabsorbed while waste like urea and salts are removed. The loop of Henle helps concentrate the medulla to promote water reabsorption. ADH controls water reabsorption in the collecting duct. Kidney functions can be replaced by hemodialysis or transplant if failure occurs. Urine tests provide information on health conditions.
The document provides an overview of the digestive system and digestion process. It covers:
- The five main food groups and basic units that make up carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
- The organs of the alimentary canal and their roles in mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.
- How digestion breaks down large insoluble molecules into small soluble molecules through enzymes.
- The role of the stomach in protein digestion through secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsin.
- How the small intestine absorbs nutrients through villi and blood or lymphatic vessels.
- The liver's role in regulating nutrients and the fates of excess nutrients and molecules.
- Absorption and
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions within an organism. Metabolic pathways consist of enzyme-catalyzed reactions organized into linear chains or cyclic pathways. Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions by binding to substrates and altering their structure. Enzyme inhibitors can competitively or non-competitively bind to enzymes and reduce their activity. Metabolic pathways are regulated by end-product inhibition, which stops pathways once their product reaches a certain concentration. Databases can be used to screen chemicals and identify potential new drugs, like anti-malarial treatments. Rates of enzymatic reactions can be calculated from experimental data and plotted on graphs to determine inhibition type.
Cellular respiration consists of several interconnected metabolic pathways that occur in the mitochondria to convert the chemical energy from glucose into usable ATP. These pathways include glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, the electron transport chain, and chemiosmosis. In glycolysis, glucose is broken down to pyruvate in the cytoplasm, producing a small amount of ATP. In the link reaction, pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA, with carbon dioxide released. The Krebs cycle further oxidizes acetyl-CoA, producing carbon dioxide and reducing electron carriers NADH and FADH2. These electrons are passed through the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane, pumping hydrogen ions across the membrane.
Chromosomes carry genes in a linear sequence that is shared by members of a species. In prokaryotes, DNA exists as a single circular chromosome, while eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes associated with histone proteins. Homologous chromosomes in diploid cells contain the same genes but can have different alleles. Sex is determined by X and Y chromosomes in most species. Karyotyping allows visualization of chromosomes and can be used for analysis.
3.4 U.1 summarizes that Mendel discovered the principles of inheritance through experiments crossing large numbers of pea plants. Gametes contain only one allele of each gene according to 3.4 U.2. During meiosis, the two alleles of each gene separate into different haploid daughter nuclei as stated in 3.4 U.3. Fusion of gametes results in diploid zygotes with two alleles of each gene as explained in 3.4 U.4. Dominant alleles mask recessive alleles, while codominant alleles have joint effects as described in 3.4 U.5. Many genetic diseases are due to recessive alleles on autosomal genes, though some are dominant or codomin
- Compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are used to supply and store energy in the form of carbohydrates and lipids. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and ribose that can be linked together to form disaccharides and polysaccharides through condensation reactions. Lipids are formed from glycerol and fatty acids and are used for long-term energy storage in humans in the form of triglycerides stored in adipose tissue.
1) Water and minerals are transported from the roots to the leaves through xylem tissue. Water enters root hair cells through osmosis and moves cell to cell through the root cortex and xylem vessels up the stem.
2) Photosynthates are transported from the leaves to the rest of the plant through phloem tissue. Phloem is made of sieve tube cells that transport sugars and amino acids.
3) Xylem and phloem are arranged in vascular bundles in stems and leaves, and alternate with each other in roots. Transpiration through the stomata of leaves creates a transpiration pull that draws water up the xylem against gravity.
The document discusses two genetic concepts: incomplete dominance and codominance. In incomplete dominance, the heterozygous genotype produces an intermediate phenotype between the two homozygous genotypes. For example, in flowers red and white petal color show incomplete dominance, where heterozygotes are pink. Codominance occurs when both alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote. For example, in cattle black and white coat colors are codominant, where heterozygotes are spotted. The document provides examples calculating genotypic and phenotypic ratios for offspring from crosses involving these inheritance patterns.
Genes located on the same chromosome (linked genes) do not assort independently during meiosis. Linked genes are inherited together and do not follow Mendel's law of independent assortment. Recombination during meiosis can result in new combinations of linked alleles. Chi-squared tests are used to determine if differences between observed and expected phenotypic ratios are statistically significant. Polygenic traits like human height show continuous variation due to environmental influences and effects of multiple genes.
Living organisms control their composition through a complex web of metabolic reactions. Metabolism involves both anabolism, the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones through condensation reactions like forming peptides from amino acids, and catabolism, the breakdown of complex molecules into monomers through hydrolysis like breaking down lactose into glucose and galactose. These metabolic pathways allow organisms to build up macromolecules from basic building blocks like sugars, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids that are made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and other elements and controlled through enzyme catalysis.
Chapter 15 Hormones Lesson 1 - Endocrine Glands and the effects of insulinj3di79
Hormones are chemical substances produced by endocrine glands that are transported via bloodstream to target organs where they exert effects. There are two main types of glands - endocrine glands that secrete hormones directly into bloodstream, and exocrine glands that secrete substances through ducts. Important endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal and gonads. Hormone production is controlled by the nervous system, other hormones, and chemical substances. Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood glucose levels, and diabetes occurs when insulin production or response is abnormal.
Cell respiration supplies energy for the functions of life through two main types: aerobic respiration which requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP, and anaerobic respiration which does not require oxygen but gives a small yield of ATP. ATP produced through cell respiration is immediately available to the cell as an energy source to power various cellular processes.
Prokaryotes have one circular chromosome while eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes. Prokaryotes may also contain extra circular DNA molecules called plasmids. Eukaryotic chromosomes are associated with histone proteins and contain different genes, existing as homologous chromosome pairs in diploid cells and single copies in haploid cells like eggs and sperm. The number and structure of chromosomes is consistent within a species and can be used to determine sex or diagnose conditions like Down syndrome.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inherited, progressive disorder caused by a mutation in the gene for the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. This prevents the breakdown of phenylalanine, causing it to build up in the brain and impair mental development. Early diagnosis through newborn screening and a special low-phenylalanine diet can help prevent intellectual disability by keeping phenylalanine levels normal.
The document provides information on several topics relating to human physiology:
- It discusses the structure and functions of the heart, including the conduction system that coordinates heart contractions.
- It explains digestion, including the roles of the stomach, liver, and intestines in breaking down and absorbing nutrients.
- The document also covers respiration, such as the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood by hemoglobin in red blood cells.
- Other topics include human nutrition, hormones and their mechanisms of action, and metabolic functions of the liver.
Cardiac muscle tissue is unique to the heart and has a similar structure to skeletal muscle but works involuntarily like smooth muscle. Hardening of the arteries, called atherosclerosis, is caused by the formation of plaques on artery walls from factors like genetics, age, smoking, diet, and obesity. These plaques can trigger blood clots that block blood flow through arteries.
The document summarizes photosynthesis, including both the light-dependent and light-independent reactions. It explains that the light-dependent reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes and produce ATP and NADPH through the absorption of light by photosystems. The light-independent reactions take place in the chloroplast stroma and use ATP and NADPH to produce glucose through the Calvin cycle. The structure of the chloroplast is adapted to efficiently carry out these two stages of photosynthesis through the stacking of thylakoids and positioning of the stroma.
Cellular respiration ppt, describes generalities about energy and ATP, and the three stages of cellular respiration: Gylolisis, Krebs Cylce and Electron transport chain.
The document discusses the kidney and its role in osmoregulation. It describes how the kidney filters blood via nephrons, which contain a glomerulus and Bowman's capsule that allow for ultrafiltration. As fluid passes through the nephron, useful substances like water and ions are reabsorbed while waste like urea and salts are removed. The loop of Henle helps concentrate the medulla to promote water reabsorption. ADH controls water reabsorption in the collecting duct. Kidney functions can be replaced by hemodialysis or transplant if failure occurs. Urine tests provide information on health conditions.
The document provides an overview of the digestive system and digestion process. It covers:
- The five main food groups and basic units that make up carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
- The organs of the alimentary canal and their roles in mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.
- How digestion breaks down large insoluble molecules into small soluble molecules through enzymes.
- The role of the stomach in protein digestion through secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsin.
- How the small intestine absorbs nutrients through villi and blood or lymphatic vessels.
- The liver's role in regulating nutrients and the fates of excess nutrients and molecules.
- Absorption and
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions within an organism. Metabolic pathways consist of enzyme-catalyzed reactions organized into linear chains or cyclic pathways. Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions by binding to substrates and altering their structure. Enzyme inhibitors can competitively or non-competitively bind to enzymes and reduce their activity. Metabolic pathways are regulated by end-product inhibition, which stops pathways once their product reaches a certain concentration. Databases can be used to screen chemicals and identify potential new drugs, like anti-malarial treatments. Rates of enzymatic reactions can be calculated from experimental data and plotted on graphs to determine inhibition type.
Cellular respiration consists of several interconnected metabolic pathways that occur in the mitochondria to convert the chemical energy from glucose into usable ATP. These pathways include glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, the electron transport chain, and chemiosmosis. In glycolysis, glucose is broken down to pyruvate in the cytoplasm, producing a small amount of ATP. In the link reaction, pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA, with carbon dioxide released. The Krebs cycle further oxidizes acetyl-CoA, producing carbon dioxide and reducing electron carriers NADH and FADH2. These electrons are passed through the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane, pumping hydrogen ions across the membrane.
Chromosomes carry genes in a linear sequence that is shared by members of a species. In prokaryotes, DNA exists as a single circular chromosome, while eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes associated with histone proteins. Homologous chromosomes in diploid cells contain the same genes but can have different alleles. Sex is determined by X and Y chromosomes in most species. Karyotyping allows visualization of chromosomes and can be used for analysis.
3.4 U.1 summarizes that Mendel discovered the principles of inheritance through experiments crossing large numbers of pea plants. Gametes contain only one allele of each gene according to 3.4 U.2. During meiosis, the two alleles of each gene separate into different haploid daughter nuclei as stated in 3.4 U.3. Fusion of gametes results in diploid zygotes with two alleles of each gene as explained in 3.4 U.4. Dominant alleles mask recessive alleles, while codominant alleles have joint effects as described in 3.4 U.5. Many genetic diseases are due to recessive alleles on autosomal genes, though some are dominant or codomin
- Compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are used to supply and store energy in the form of carbohydrates and lipids. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and ribose that can be linked together to form disaccharides and polysaccharides through condensation reactions. Lipids are formed from glycerol and fatty acids and are used for long-term energy storage in humans in the form of triglycerides stored in adipose tissue.
1) Water and minerals are transported from the roots to the leaves through xylem tissue. Water enters root hair cells through osmosis and moves cell to cell through the root cortex and xylem vessels up the stem.
2) Photosynthates are transported from the leaves to the rest of the plant through phloem tissue. Phloem is made of sieve tube cells that transport sugars and amino acids.
3) Xylem and phloem are arranged in vascular bundles in stems and leaves, and alternate with each other in roots. Transpiration through the stomata of leaves creates a transpiration pull that draws water up the xylem against gravity.
The document discusses two genetic concepts: incomplete dominance and codominance. In incomplete dominance, the heterozygous genotype produces an intermediate phenotype between the two homozygous genotypes. For example, in flowers red and white petal color show incomplete dominance, where heterozygotes are pink. Codominance occurs when both alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote. For example, in cattle black and white coat colors are codominant, where heterozygotes are spotted. The document provides examples calculating genotypic and phenotypic ratios for offspring from crosses involving these inheritance patterns.
Genes located on the same chromosome (linked genes) do not assort independently during meiosis. Linked genes are inherited together and do not follow Mendel's law of independent assortment. Recombination during meiosis can result in new combinations of linked alleles. Chi-squared tests are used to determine if differences between observed and expected phenotypic ratios are statistically significant. Polygenic traits like human height show continuous variation due to environmental influences and effects of multiple genes.
Living organisms control their composition through a complex web of metabolic reactions. Metabolism involves both anabolism, the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones through condensation reactions like forming peptides from amino acids, and catabolism, the breakdown of complex molecules into monomers through hydrolysis like breaking down lactose into glucose and galactose. These metabolic pathways allow organisms to build up macromolecules from basic building blocks like sugars, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids that are made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and other elements and controlled through enzyme catalysis.
Chapter 15 Hormones Lesson 1 - Endocrine Glands and the effects of insulinj3di79
Hormones are chemical substances produced by endocrine glands that are transported via bloodstream to target organs where they exert effects. There are two main types of glands - endocrine glands that secrete hormones directly into bloodstream, and exocrine glands that secrete substances through ducts. Important endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal and gonads. Hormone production is controlled by the nervous system, other hormones, and chemical substances. Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood glucose levels, and diabetes occurs when insulin production or response is abnormal.
Cell respiration supplies energy for the functions of life through two main types: aerobic respiration which requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP, and anaerobic respiration which does not require oxygen but gives a small yield of ATP. ATP produced through cell respiration is immediately available to the cell as an energy source to power various cellular processes.
Prokaryotes have one circular chromosome while eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes. Prokaryotes may also contain extra circular DNA molecules called plasmids. Eukaryotic chromosomes are associated with histone proteins and contain different genes, existing as homologous chromosome pairs in diploid cells and single copies in haploid cells like eggs and sperm. The number and structure of chromosomes is consistent within a species and can be used to determine sex or diagnose conditions like Down syndrome.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inherited, progressive disorder caused by a mutation in the gene for the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. This prevents the breakdown of phenylalanine, causing it to build up in the brain and impair mental development. Early diagnosis through newborn screening and a special low-phenylalanine diet can help prevent intellectual disability by keeping phenylalanine levels normal.
The document provides information on several topics relating to human physiology:
- It discusses the structure and functions of the heart, including the conduction system that coordinates heart contractions.
- It explains digestion, including the roles of the stomach, liver, and intestines in breaking down and absorbing nutrients.
- The document also covers respiration, such as the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood by hemoglobin in red blood cells.
- Other topics include human nutrition, hormones and their mechanisms of action, and metabolic functions of the liver.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream and transported to target cells. There are three main types of hormones: steroids, proteins, and tyrosine derivatives. Steroid hormones enter cells and interact directly with genes, while protein hormones bind to cell membrane receptors and trigger the release of intracellular secondary messengers. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland via the portal vein connecting it to the anterior pituitary, and via neurosecretory cells connecting it to the posterior pituitary, which stores hormones like ADH. ADH secretion is regulated by negative feedback in response to osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help boost feelings of calmness, happiness and focus.
This document outlines key concepts relating to gas exchange in the human body. It defines partial pressure and explains the oxygen dissociation curves of different hemoglobins and myoglobin. It also describes how carbon dioxide is carried in the blood through the actions of carbonic anhydrase, the chloride shift, and plasma protein buffering. Exercise causes ventilation rate to increase in response to detecting higher carbon dioxide levels in the blood, which lowers pH and stimulates chemosensors to increase breathing. Asthma can affect the gas exchange system, and high altitude poses gas exchange challenges that the body acclimates to over time.
The document outlines key aspects of the cardiac cycle and transport system. It explains the events of atrial and ventricular systole and diastole, as well as heart sounds. It also discusses the mechanisms that control the heartbeat, including the roles of the sinoatrial and atrioventricular nodes. Finally, it outlines atherosclerosis and coronary thrombosis, and discusses factors that affect the incidence of coronary heart disease such as genetics, age, sex, smoking, diet, obesity, and lack of exercise.
The document discusses absorption of digested foods in the ileum. It includes instructions to draw and label a diagram of a transverse section of the ileum under a light microscope, showing the mucosa and muscle layers. It also asks to explain the structural features of an epithelial cell in a villus as seen in electron micrographs, including microvilli, mitochondria, pinocytotic vesicles and tight junctions. Finally, it requests an explanation of the mechanisms used by the ileum to absorb and transport food, such as facilitated diffusion, active transport and endocytosis, and to list materials not absorbed and egested, including cellulose, lignin, bile pigments, bacteria and intestinal cells.
The liver functions to regulate nutrient levels in the blood, store carbohydrates, iron, vitamins A and D, and synthesize plasma proteins and cholesterol. It also plays a key role in detoxification by breaking down old red blood cells and filtering toxins from the blood via the hepatic portal vein and sinusoids before blood exits through the hepatic vein. Excessive alcohol consumption can damage the liver by disrupting these important functions.
The document summarizes the human ventilation system and respiratory process. It describes:
1) The ventilation system which allows air to flow from the external environment into the lungs through a network of passageways in the upper and lower respiratory tract.
2) The breathing process of inspiration and expiration which is controlled by muscles like the diaphragm and intercostals.
3) Gas exchange that occurs in alveoli through diffusion between air in lungs and blood in capillaries, allowing for oxygenation and removal of carbon dioxide.
The cardiovascular system transports substances to and from cells via the blood. The blood system continuously transports substances to cells and simultaneously transports waste products away from cells. It maintains homeostasis, delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues while removing carbon dioxide and other wastes. Blood vessels include arteries, veins, and capillaries that allow for exchange of materials between blood and tissues. The heart acts as a pump to circulate blood through the cardiovascular system in two circuits - pulmonary and systemic circulation.
The human immune system has multiple lines of defense to protect the body from pathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. The skin and mucous membranes provide the first line of defense through physical and chemical barriers. The second line of defense involves immune cells like phagocytes that attack and destroy invading microbes. The third and most specific line of defense involves lymphocytes like B and T cells that produce antibodies and mount specialized cellular responses against pathogens. Both humoral immunity involving B cells and cell-mediated immunity involving T cells work to eliminate infections. Subsequent exposures lead to immunological memory and a stronger, faster response. However, some pathogens like HIV are able to evade these defenses by targeting immune cells.
This document discusses genetic engineering and biotechnology. It begins by defining genetic engineering as the manipulation of genes, usually outside an organism's natural reproductive process. It then discusses chromosomes and mutations, including examples of chromosome numbers in different species. Techniques for genetic engineering are explained, such as restriction enzymes and bacterial transformation. Applications include creating transgenic bacteria, plants, and animals. Ethical issues related to genetic engineering are also reviewed.
This document discusses meiosis and sexual reproduction. It begins by explaining that meiosis results in daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This allows for sexual reproduction, where offspring have a combination of genetic material from two parents. The document then covers the stages of meiosis, including prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I, prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II. It also discusses how abnormalities during meiosis can result in chromosomal abnormalities like Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Kleinfelter syndrome.
The document discusses the male and female reproductive systems. It describes sex determination in most animals, including the role of the SRY gene in developing testes. It then outlines the major parts of the male reproductive system including the testes, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and Cowper's gland. It also discusses hormones and negative feedback in the male system. For the female system it outlines the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, and vagina and describes the menstrual cycle and its stages regulated by hormones like FSH, LH, estrogen, and progesterone. The document concludes with sections on puberty and in vitro fertilization.
This image shows plant cell mitosis in telophase. Key indications:
- Cell plate forming between two nuclei - characteristic of plant cell cytokinesis
- No cleavage furrow as would be seen in animal cells
So in summary, this image shows a plant cell undergoing telophase/cytokinesis stage of mitosis.
The document discusses homeostasis and various homeostatic mechanisms in the human body. It describes how homeostasis involves negative feedback loops to maintain stable internal conditions. Examples discussed include regulation of body temperature, blood glucose levels, leptin and obesity, and melatonin and sleep patterns. Precise control of these systems relies on coordination between the nervous and endocrine systems, with receptors monitoring variables and effectors enacting changes under brain control.
The document summarizes key aspects of human digestion and nutrition. It describes the main stages of digestion that occur in the oral cavity, stomach, small intestine and large intestine. Key points include:
- Digestion involves both physical and chemical breakdown of food facilitated by enzymes and accessory organs like the liver and pancreas.
- The small intestine is the primary site of nutrient absorption into the bloodstream through processes like diffusion, facilitated diffusion and active transport.
- The liver plays an important role in regulating blood composition and nutrient storage/processing through functions like detoxification, bile production, and albumin synthesis.
- A balanced diet with essential nutrients is important for human health, and macronutrients like carbohydrates
The document discusses the human digestive system, including the five phases of digestion: ingestion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, and elimination. It describes the two types of digestion - mechanical and chemical - and the major organs involved, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The small intestine absorbs nutrients from digested food while the large intestine absorbs water and solidifies waste before it is eliminated from the rectum.
The document discusses the key structures and processes of the human digestive system. It begins by outlining the main stages of digestion: ingestion, digestion, and egestion. It then describes the structures involved in ingestion like the mouth, esophagus and stomach. Next, it details the small intestine and how villi and microvilli increase absorption surface area. The document also discusses the roles of the liver, pancreas and large intestine in digestion and nutrient processing.
The document discusses various topics related to nutrition including macromolecules that provide energy like proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. It describes the roles of the liver, vitamins, minerals, and enzymes in breaking down nutrients. Specific carbohydrates like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides are defined. The document also covers protein structure, fat types, cholesterol, blood sugar regulation, energy requirements, metabolic rate, and eating disorders like anorexia and bulimia.
At the end of this lecture, the students should be able to:-
1. Differentiate simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrate
2. Describe the function of carbohydrates in the body
3. Demonstrate knowledge of health with carbohydrates
The document provides information on liver anatomy, physiology, and functions. It also discusses causes of liver disease including dietary deficiencies, infectious agents like hepatitis viruses, toxic agents like alcohol and drugs, and inborn errors of metabolism. Specific conditions discussed include fatty liver disease (NAFLD), hepatitis, gallbladder conditions like cholecystitis, and bile duct inflammation (cholangitis). Diet and lifestyle factors are presented for managing conditions like NAFLD and viral hepatitis.
The document provides an overview of the digestive system, including:
1. It outlines the functional structures of the gastrointestinal tract and their roles in digestion.
2. It describes the secretions produced in the mouth, stomach, pancreas, liver, and intestines that aid in digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
3. It explains how nutrients are absorbed and how metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids provides energy for the body.
This document discusses the physiology of the liver, liver function tests, and pathophysiology of jaundice. It begins by listing the learning objectives which are to understand liver functions, hepatic physiology, bilirubin metabolism, the basis for classifying jaundice, and differences in lab findings for different types of jaundice. It then describes the anatomy and blood supply of the liver, histology of liver lobules, bile secretion, and the many functions of the liver including metabolism, storage, detoxification, and immunity. It also discusses liver function tests and the metabolism of bilirubin before explaining the different types of jaundice and their pathophysiology.
This document discusses enzyme digestion in the human digestive system. It explains that chemical digestion uses enzymes to break down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed. The major organs involved include the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. The pancreas produces enzymes that digest fats, carbohydrates, and proteins in the small intestine. Hydrolysis is the process by which enzymes break bonds between larger nutrient molecules, converting carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins into simpler forms like sugars, fatty acids, glycerol, and amino acids that can be absorbed. Different enzymes are involved in digesting each macronutrient type at various locations along the digestive tract.
The document provides an overview of the digestive system, including its main components and functions. It discusses the roles and structures of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Key points covered include the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins and fats by digestive enzymes, and the absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream. The digestive tract protects itself through secretions, peristalsis and layers of tissue.
This document summarizes the physiology of the digestive system. It describes how digestion breaks down large food molecules into smaller components through mechanical and chemical processes in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine. The small intestine, through villi and microvilli, greatly increases the surface area for absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream or lymphatic system. Nutrients are then transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein or lymphatic system before entering general circulation to be used by the body's cells. Waste products not absorbed pass through the large intestine and are excreted.
The document provides an overview of the physiology of the digestive system. It discusses the basic functions of the digestive system which include ingestion, digestion, absorption, and defecation. It describes the organs that make up the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and their roles, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. It also discusses the layers of the GIT wall, regulation of digestive functions by nerves and hormones, and the roles of saliva, stomach secretions, bile, and pancreatic juices in digestion.
The document discusses the key components and functions of the mammalian digestive system. The digestive system breaks down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. It describes the major organs involved including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and accessory organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas. It explains the multi-step process of digestion including mechanical and chemical breakdown of nutrients, absorption into the bloodstream, and elimination of waste.
The document summarizes the human digestive system and the process of digestion. It describes the steps of digestion from ingestion to defecation. The main parts of the digestive system include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and accessory organs like the liver, pancreas and salivary glands. Digestion involves both mechanical and chemical breakdown of food by enzymes from these organs. Nutrients are then absorbed in the small intestine and transported to the liver and cells before undigested waste is excreted during defecation.
Lect 6. (digestion and absorption in git)Ayub Abdi
The document discusses digestion and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. It covers:
- How folds, villi, and microvilli in the small intestine increase the absorptive surface area by nearly 1000 times.
- The breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats through hydrolysis by enzymes in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine.
- How monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol are absorbed into the bloodstream through active transport mechanisms like sodium co-transport or passive diffusion using micelles.
- Water and electrolytes like sodium are also absorbed through diffusion or active transport processes.
1) Nutrition involves macromolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, and fats that provide energy, as well as vitamins, minerals, fibre, and water.
2) Enzymes break down macromolecules and are named according to their targets, like protease for proteins. Most enzymes act in the small intestines under hormonal control.
3) The liver stores and releases glucose and fat, produces bile to break down fat, and helps detoxify the body. Too much alcohol can lead to cirrhosis of the liver.
The digestive system is divided into the alimentary tube and accessory organs. The alimentary tube extends from the mouth to the anus and includes the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Accessory organs include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Digestion involves both mechanical and chemical breakdown of food. Enzymes produced in various organs help break down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. As we age, the digestive system becomes less effective at digestion and absorption of nutrients.
The document summarizes digestion in human beings. It discusses the nutrients found in food and the three main types: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. It explains that food must be digested into smaller molecules to pass through cell membranes and enter the bloodstream. Digestion is carried out by enzymes in the digestive system. The digestive system breaks down large food molecules through mechanical and chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion involves chewing and peristalsis, while chemical digestion uses enzymes to break nutrients into absorbable molecules.
The document provides guidance for an IB Biology course on the digestive system. It outlines six understandings about the small intestine, including that circular and longitudinal muscles mix food and enzymes and move it along, the pancreas secretes digestive enzymes, and villi absorb digested monomers. It also lists two applications, including the processes of starch digestion and transport to the liver, and using dialysis tubing to model absorption. Finally it provides guidance on two skills, producing an annotated diagram of the digestive system and identifying tissue layers in the small intestine.
The document discusses digestion in human beings. It describes how humans obtain nutrients from food and break it down through the process of digestion. Digestion involves both mechanical and chemical breakdown of food. Mechanical digestion involves chewing and mixing of food. Chemical digestion involves enzymes that break down macromolecules like carbohydrates, proteins and fats into smaller molecules that can be absorbed. The major organs involved in digestion are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, pancreas, liver and large intestine. Nutrients are absorbed through the small intestine into the bloodstream and lymphatic system to provide the body with energy and materials for growth, maintenance and regulation.
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2. ESSENTIALS
• The structure of the walls of the stomach and
small intestine allow them to move, digest, and
absorb food (CORE)
• Digestion is controlled by nervous and
hormonal mechanisms. (D2)
• The chemical composition of the blood is
regulated by the liver. (D3)
• A balanced diet is essential to human health.
(D1)
3. DIGESTION
• What is digestion?
• Breaking food down into smaller molecules.
• This can be done by physically pounding the molecules, or chemically
breaking the molecules apart.
• What is the medical term for anything digestive?
• GASTRO
• What sort of molecules help with chemical digestion?
• Enzymes
• What kind of gland aids in digestion?
• Exocrine – must have connecting point.
• Not hormone produced/can be both.
• Which reaction is involved in digestion, hydrolysis or
dehydration synthesis?
• Hydrolysis
4. FIVE STAGES OF FOOD
PROCESSING
1. Ingestion
2. Digestion (enzymatic hydrolysis)
3. Absorption – into the blood
4. Assimilation – into the body
5. Egestion
5. MAMMALIAN DIGESTION
• Physical digestion – caused by movement
• Chemical Digestion – enzymes, water, acids
• Accessory glands:
• Salivary glands
• Pancreas
• Liver / Gall bladder
6.
7.
8. ORAL CAVITY
• Organs Includes:
• Tongue – mixes/moves chewed food
• Teeth – breaks food down
• Enzymes:
• Salivary Amylase – begins digestion of
polysaccharides. Starch to maltose (pH – 7)
• Chewed and swallowed food: Bolus
11. ESOPHAGUS
• Muscular tube…connects mouth to stomach.
(epiglottis)
• No chemical action. No digestion.
PERISTALSIS – (rhythmic) muscular movement of
food thru the digestive tract after swallowing.
Longitudinal – lengthen
Circular - squeeze
14. STOMACH
The Basics:
• J – shaped muscular
organ. Thick walled
• Chemical and physical
digestion
• Sphincter – cardiac and
pyloric
• Stores food
• Begins protein
digestion….
15.
16. STOMACH
• Stomach lining:
• Contains Gastric Glands:
• Has three kinds of cells:
• Parietal: Secretes HCl –
activates pepsinogen; kills
pathogen.
• Chief: Secretes Pepsinogen;
activates to PEPSIN (gastric
protease) begins protein
digestion. pH – 2.
• Neck: Releases mucous;
provides protection
• Stomach processes food in 2-
6 hours
• Semisolid food: chyme.
17. CONTROL OF GASTRIC JUICE SECRETION
• Controlled by nerves and hormones:
• Sight and smell of food sends nerve impulses to Parietal
cells – secretes acid (REFLEX)
• Na and Cl ions secreted. Water moves into stomach by
osmosis. Forms Gastric Juice.
• Chemoreceptors detect amino acids – move stomach wall.
• Impulses are sent to brain. Brain sends impulses to
endocrine glands via VAGUS NERVE to secrete Gastrin.
• Gastrin stimulates further secretion of acid and
pepsinogen.
• Secretin and Somatostatin - inhibit gastrin secretion
20. SMALL INTESTINE
• Small diameter….7 meters long/ 23 ft (appx)
• Some physical; mostly chemical digestion.
• Receives secretions from the liver and
pancreas.
• 3 sections: duodenum (digestion), jejunum
(digestion and absorption) and ileum (for
absorption)
• Absorption of nutrients begins in the lining of
the small intestine.
21. SMALL INTESTINE - ENZYMES
• Bicarbonate – from pancreas to neutralize acid (not an enzyme)
• Protein –
• Trypsin - (pancreas) continues protein digestion. (pH 8)
• Endopeptidase - (small intestine) completes protein digestion to
amino acids (pH – 7.5)
• Fat –
• Bile – (liver) not an enzyme. Breaks down large fat molecules
• Lipase – (pancreas) digests fats. (pH – 8)
• Carbohydrates
• Amylase (pancreas) continues starch digestion (maltose) (pH 7)
• Maltase - (small intestine) = (maltose into glucose). (pH 7)
• Sucrase – glucose and fructose (pH – 7)
• Lactase – glucose and galactose (pH – 7)
22.
23. TISSUE OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT
Mucosa
Epithelium
Longitudinal
Circular Muscle
29. SMALL INTESTINE - FOOD ABSORPTION
• Absorbed food travels to the liver for assimilation.
Structure Function
Finger-like shape Large surface area
Surface cell with – microvilli Huge increase in surface area
Surface cells with – enzymes Digestion
Surface cells with – large number of
mitochondria
Active transport
Dense capillary network Blood supply to remove water soluble
nutrients
Lacteal Removes end products of fat digestion.
Lipid soluble vitamins. Part of
lymphatic system
31. METHODS OF ABSORPTION
• Simple Diffusion – hydrophobic nutrients – fatty acids
• Facilitated Diffusion – hydrophilic nutrients (fructose)
• Active Transport – mineral ions….Na, Ca, Fe
• Endocytosis – Triglycerides, cholesterols
32. ASSIMILATION
• Taking molecules to cells to become part of the body:
• Carbohydrates: produce ATP, DNA, RNA, Cell membrane
• Fat: Adipose tissue, phospholipids, mitochondrial membranes,
hormones
• Amino acids: cells=proteins. Excessive amino acids are deaminated by
the liver to form urea
35. FUNCTIONS
• Composed of hepatocytes (Liver cells):
1. Detox: removes toxins from blood. Converts them to
less toxic/non-toxic.
2. Conversion of Cholesterol to Bile Salts: part of BILE.
Bile helps to emulsify fats in small intestine.
3. Production of Plasma proteins: rER of liver cells
produce 90% of plasma proteins (Albumin &
Fibrinogen). Processed by Golgi in liver cells
4. Nutrient storage and regulation:
• GLUCOSE STORAGE
• Iron, Vitamin A, Vitamin D
36. FUNCTIONS
5. Breakdown of Erythrocytes (RBC)
• Kupffer Cells – walls of sinusoids.
• Specialized macrophages that absorb and
breakdown RBC by phagocytosis.
• Recycle the components:
• Hemoglobin split
• Globins hydrolyzed
• Iron separates from heme – taken to
bone marrow
• Remainder of the heme forms BILIRUBIN
– used to form bile.
39. BLOOD FLOW (HEPATOCYTE)
• Blood is supplied by these vessels:
• HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN – blood from stomach, sm. Int. &
spleen directly to liver. Not a true vein. Bring nutrients to liver.
• HEPATIC VEIN – blood -- no Oxygen to heart from liver
• HEPATIC ARTERY – blood supplies Oxygen from heart
• HPV separates into SINUSOIDS
• Capillary- like (wider), thin celled, many pores: allows blood
flowing through it to come in close contact to liver cells.
• HA branches to form capillaries that join sinusoids: provides
Oxygen to liver cells.
40.
41.
42. LARGE INTESTINE
• Larger diameter…shorter tube (1.5m)
• Sections: cecum, colon (main), rectum
• Functions:
• Reabsorbs water.
• Mutualistic bacteria (E. coli): synthesize
vitamin K
• Elimination (egestion) of Waste (Feces)
43.
44. MAIN COMPONENTS OF FECES
• CELLULOSE - dietary fiber
• LIGNIN - - dietary fiber
• BILE PIGMENTS
• BACTERIA
• INTESTINAL CELLS
• MEAN RESIDENCE TIME –
• average time undigested “food” remains in the Lg. Intestine.
• Positive correlation between the amount of dietary fiber and MRT
49. DIET
• THE TOTAL FOOD INTAKE BY AN
ORGANISM.
• Nutrition – the supply of nutrients.
50. NUTRIENTS
Essential Nutrients – must be consumed as part of your diet. Cannot
be synthesized by the body.
These four nutrients are essential:
• Water - essential
• Lipids – “fatty acid” essential
• Amino acids - not all
• Vitamins and Minerals – not all
Non-essential –
• Carbohydrates – energy can by made from both fats and proteins
51. AMINO ACIDS
• 20 amino acids
Essential - lacking any a.a not made by the
body
Non essential – any that the body can make
by conversion of other nutrients.
53. FATS
• Storage of energy
• Insulation of body against temperature changes
• Fat around some organs provides shock
absorbers
• Cell membrane - phospholipid
54. VITAMIN AND MINERALS
• Can be distinguished by their chemical nature
Minerals –
• Chemical elements; usually ionic
Vitamins –
• All organic
Cannot be made by the body - essential
56. COMPARISON OF ENERGY
IN NUTRIENTS.
• Measured in kilojoules (kJ)
CARBOHYDRATES: 1760
kJ/100g
PROTEIN – 1720 kJ/100g
FAT – 4000 kJ/100g
57. MEASURING ENERGY CONTENT
• To heat one mL of water 1°celcius – 4.2J of energy is needed
= 1 calorie
• SO:
Energy content = temp change(ºC) x water volume(mL) x 4.2
of a food mass of food (g)
Calorimeter – instrument used to measure energy content
61. 2. LIPIDS, YOUR HEALTH, AND
HEART DISEASE
Review:
1.Saturated –
• All carbon atoms are connected by single covalent bonds
• Number of hydrogen atoms bonded to carbon cannot be increased
• Non essential
1.Unsaturated –
• One or more double bonds between carbon atoms
• More hydrogen can be bonded if double bond is replaced by single
bond.
62.
63. • SATURATED
• CHOLESTEROL
• TRANS FATS
• UNSATURATED
• MONOUNSATURATED
• POLYUNSATURATED
• CIS: OMEGA 3 & 7
GOOD FATS VS. BAD FATS
GOOD BAD
64.
65. FATTY ACIDS AND HEALTH - CHOLESTEROL
HDL vs. LDL – produced in the liver
CHOLESTEROL travels in the blood attached to a protein
• Low Density Lipoprotein – transports cholesterol and triglycerides
from the liver around the body…tends to deposit on artery walls.
• “Bad cholesterol”
• High Density Lipoproteins - transports excess cholesterol and
triglycerides from body to the liver.
• “Good cholesterol”
• Triglycerides - another type of fat produced by excess calories,
alcohol, and sugar (very LDL)
66.
67.
68. CHOLESTEROL AND CORONARY HEART DISEASE
• Cholesterol = steroid
Research has shown a positive correlation between high levels of
cholesterol and an increased risk of CHD, but it is not certain that lowering
cholesterol intake reduces the risk of CHD:
•Most research involves total blood cholesterol levels but only
cholesterol in LDL is implicated.
•The liver synthesizes it’s own cholesterol
•Reducing dietary cholesterol…very little overall effect on CHD
Rates
•Genetic factors appear to be more important
•There is a positive correlation between intake of saturated fat
and cholesterol. Is saturated fat the issue?
69. 3. APPETITE CONTROL AND THE
BRAIN
Hypothalamus
• Appetite Control Center
Receives hormone stimuli:
• Insulin – secreted by pancreas
when Glucose levels are high
• Peptide YY - “gut hormone”
• Released by small intestine in
response to food intake
• Increases with number of calories
eaten
• Leptin –released by adipose tissue .
More secreted as more fat is stored.
70. 4. NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY DISEASES/DISORDERS
Malnutrition – a deficiency, imbalance,
or excess or specific nutrients in the
diet.
Starvation – severe lack of intake of
both essential and non-essential
nutrients.
• Results in breakdown of body tissue
71. VITAMIN AND MINERALS
• Can be distinguished by their chemical nature
Minerals –
• Chemical elements; usually ionic
Vitamins –
• All organic
Cannot be made by the body - essential
72. VITAMIN C
• Vitamin C = Ascorbic Acid
• Needed for synthesis of collagen fibers
in:
• Skin
• Blood vessel walls
• Humans cannot synthesize
• Not exclusive to humans
SCURVY – Vit. C deficiency disease.
Patients develop anemia, edema,
ulcerations, lose teeth.
74. VITAMIN D – DEFICIENCY
• Calciferol
• Oily fish, eggs, milk*
• Needed for calcium absorption in
the intestines.
• Calcium: bone and teeth strength
• Symptoms of deficiency similar to
calcium deficiency
• Diseases:
• Rickets – soft bone disorder
• Osteomalacia – bone thinning
• Synthesis:
• Skin, Food, Supplement
75. PROTEIN MALNUTRITION: PHENYLKETONURIA
CAUSES:
• Autosomal recessive – causes a mutation of the
gene for the enzyme PAH
• Condition where a baby is unable to breakdown
the a.a. phenylalanine into tyrosine.
• Deficiency in the enzyme PAH
• Levels of phenylalanine accumulate
76. PHENYLKETONURIA
• Most infants are tested soon after birth.
Symptoms:
Early: seizures, small head size
Long term – severe mental retardation
Treatment: diet low in phenylalanine
79. GENERAL FACTORS THAT
LEAD TO OBESITY
• Food –
• high fat and sugar content
• Smaller quantities of high fiber
foods eaten
• Economic
• Growth – larger portions
• Food is cheaper
• Transport
• More cars ----less walking
• Jobs
• Physically undemanding
• Technology
• Tasks done by hand
--- now done by
machine.
•Video games and
television watching =
“couch potato”
generation!
81. TYPE II - DIABETES
• Diabetes Mellitus
• Adult Onset Diabetes
• Medical Cause:
• Glucose: from Food and Liver
• Eating: pancreas secretes insulin
• Allows cells to take up sugar – Lower Blood
Glucose levels
82. TYPE II - DIABETES
Symptoms:
• Increased thirst
• Frequent Urination
• Extreme hunger
• Weight Loss
• Fatigue
• Blurred Vision
• Slow healing and more frequent infection
83. TYPE II - DIABETES
Risk Factors/ Non Physiological Causes:
• Obesity
• Inactivity
• Genetics
• Ethnic Background
• Age
• Prediabetes
• Gestational
84. TYPE II - DIABETES
Treatment
Dietary Advice:
• Avoid direct sugary foods
• Eat Complex Carbohydrates
• Digest more slowly
• High fiber – delays sugar absorption
• Lower fat -
85. COMPLICATIONS – TYPE II
DIABETES
Short Term
• Hyperglycemia
• Hypoglycemia
• Ketoacidosis
Long Term
• C.H.D.
• Circulation Issues
• Nerve Damage
• Kidney Damage
• Eye Damage
• Gum Disease
• Osteoporosis
• Alzheimer’s
86. ANOREXIA NERVOSA
• Unusual obsession with food, weight, body shape, and
excessive exercise
• Affects more women than men
Psychological disorder:
• Emotional issues
• Perfectionism
• Control
• Self worth
87. PHYSICAL CONSEQUENCES
• Circulatory
• Anemia - bruising
• Low blood cell count & electrolyte balance
• Heart failure
• Respiratory – lung tissue
• Skeletal – bone loss; osteoporosis
• Muscle – loss of muscle mass, weaker
• Hair Loss
• Women – interruption of ovulation
• Men – low testosterone
90. CHOLERA
• Infection of the intestines
• Source: Vibria cholerae (bacteria)
• Bacteria releases a toxin that binds to receptors in
the intestines.
• Toxin enters cells: endocytosis
• Toxin triggers release of Cl & HCO3 Water follows
leading to acute diarrhea.
• Fluid loss can cause death within hours
if untreated.
91. STOMACH ACID SECRETION AND
ULCERS
Stomach Acid
•secreted by parietal cells
•Disrupts ability of cells to be held
together in tissue
•Leads to denaturing of proteins
(except pepsin)
92. ACID REFLUX
• occurs when cardiac sphincter malfunctions
• Acid enters the esophagus
• Heartburn!
• Production of acid in stomach –
• proton pump (H+,K+ - ATPase Pump)
• Uses ATP to exchange 2H+ for 2K+
• Reduce Acid –
• Use of proton pump inhibitor (PPI)
• Bind to a single pump – irreversibly
• Provides temporary relief
• NEXIUM, PREVACID
93.
94.
95. ULCERS
• Open sore
• Partial digestion of stomach lining by pepsin/HCL
• Causes:
• Stress
• Excessive acid production
• Infection with Heliobacter pylori bacteria (80%)
• Lack of treatment can lead to stomach cancer
Editor's Notes
PYY3-36
Peptide YY3-36 contains 34 amino acids, many of them in the same positions as those in neuropeptide Y.
But the action of PYY3-36 is just the reverse of that of NPY, being a potent feeding inhibitor. It is released by cells in the intestine after meals. The amount secreted increases with the number of calories ingested and especially when these are derived from proteins rather than carbohydrates or fats. (This may explain the efficacy of the protein-rich, carbohydrate-poor Atkins diet.)
PYY3-36 acts on
the hypothalamus to suppress appetite;
the pancreas to increase its exocrine secretion of digestive juices;
the gall bladder to stimulate the release of bile.
The appetite suppression mediated by PYY3-36 works more slowly than that of cholecystokinin and more rapidly than that of leptin. In a recent human study, volunteers given PYY3-36 were less hungry and ate less food over the next 12 hours than those who received saline (neither group knew what they were getting
istology, adipose tissue or fat is loose connective tissue composed of adipocytes. Adipose tissue is derived from lipoblasts. Its main role is to store energy in the form of fat, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Obesity or being overweight in humans and most animals does not depend on body weight but on the amount of body fat—specifically, adipose tissue. Two types of adipose tissue exist: white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT). Adipose tissue also serves as an important endocrine organ[1] by producing hormones such as leptin, resistin and the cytokine TNFα. The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled by the adipose gene
Leptin binds to the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus, known as the "appetite center." Leptin signals to the brain that the body has had enough to eat, or satiety. A very small group of humans possess homozygous (same on both of the pair) mutations for the leptin gene which leads to a constant desire for food, resulting in severe obesity. This condition can be treated successfully by the administration of recombinant human leptin.[12]
Thus, circulating leptin levels give the brain input regarding energy storage so it can regulate appetite and metabolism. Leptin works by inhibiting the activity of neurons that contain neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AgRP), and by increasing the activity of neurons expressing α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH). The NPY neurons are a key element in the regulation of appetite; small doses of NPY injected into the brains of experimental animals stimulates feeding, while selective destruction of the NPY neurons in mice causes them to become anorexic. Conversely, α-MSH is an important mediator of satiety, and differences in the gene for the receptor at which α-MSH acts in the brain are linked to obesity in humans.
PKU" redirects here. For other uses, see PKU (disambiguation).
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder characterized by a deficiency in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH). This enzyme is necessary to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine to the amino acid tyrosine. When PAH is deficient, phenylalanine accumulates and is converted into phenylpyruvate (also known as phenylketone), which is detected in the urine. PKU is found on chromosome number 12. Phenyl alanine is an α-amino acid with the formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2C6H5. ... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify diseases and a wide variety of signs, symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances and external causes of injury or disease. ... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision (ICD-10) is a coding of diseases and signs, symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances and external causes of injury or diseases, as classified by the World Health Organization (WHO). ... // E00-E35 - Endocrine diseases (E00-E07) Disorders of thyroid gland (E00) Congenital iodine-deficiency syndrome (E01) Iodine-deficiency-related thyroid disorders and allied conditions (E02) Subclinical iodine-deficiency hypothyroidism (E03) Other hypothyroidism (E030) Congenital hypothyroidism with diffuse goitre (E031) Congenital hypothyroidism without goitre (E032) Hypothyroidism due to medicaments and other... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify diseases and a wide variety of signs, symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances and external causes of injury or disease. ... The following is a list of codes for International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. ... The Mendelian Inheritance in Man project is a database that catalogues all the known diseases with a genetic component, and - when possible - links them to the relevant genes in the human genome. ... The Disease Bold textDatabase is a free website that provides information about the relationships between medical conditions, symptoms, and medications. ... Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) is a huge controlled vocabulary (or metadata system) for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books in the life sciences. ... In genetics, the term recessive gene refers to an allele that causes a phenotype (visible or detectable characteristic) that is only seen in a homozygous genotype (an organism that has two copies of the same allele). ... A genetic disorder is a condition caused by abnormalities in genes or chromosomes. ... Categories: Biochemistry stubs | EC 1. ... This article is about the urine of animals generally. ...
Left untreated, this condition can cause problems with brain development, leading to progressive mental retardation and seizures. However, PKU is one of the few genetic diseases that can be controlled by diet. A diet low in phenylalanine and high in tyrosine can be a very effective treatment. There is no cure. Damage done is irreversible so early detection is crucial.
To understand type 2 diabetes, first you must understand how glucose is normally processed in the body.
Glucose is a main source of energy for the cells that make up your muscles and other tissues. Glucose comes from two major sources: the food you eat and your liver. During digestion, sugar is absorbed into the bloodstream. Normally, sugar then enters cells with the help of insulin.
The hormone insulin comes from the pancreas, a gland located just behind the stomach. When you eat, your pancreas secretes insulin into your bloodstream. As insulin circulates, it acts like a key by unlocking microscopic doors that allow sugar to enter your cells. Insulin lowers the amount of sugar in your bloodstream. As your blood sugar level drops, so does the secretion of insulin from your pancreas.
Your liver acts as a glucose storage and manufacturing center. When your insulin levels are low — when you haven't eaten in a while, for example — your liver releases the stored glucose to keep your glucose level within a normal range.
In type 2 diabetes, this process works improperly. Instead of moving into your cells, sugar builds up in your bloodstream. This occurs when your pancreas doesn't make enough insulin or your cells become resistant to the action of insulin. Exactly why this happens is uncertain, although excess fat — especially abdominal fat — and inactivity seem to be important factors.
To understand type 2 diabetes, first you must understand how glucose is normally processed in the body.
Glucose is a main source of energy for the cells that make up your muscles and other tissues. Glucose comes from two major sources: the food you eat and your liver. During digestion, sugar is absorbed into the bloodstream. Normally, sugar then enters cells with the help of insulin.
The hormone insulin comes from the pancreas, a gland located just behind the stomach. When you eat, your pancreas secretes insulin into your bloodstream. As insulin circulates, it acts like a key by unlocking microscopic doors that allow sugar to enter your cells. Insulin lowers the amount of sugar in your bloodstream. As your blood sugar level drops, so does the secretion of insulin from your pancreas.
Your liver acts as a glucose storage and manufacturing center. When your insulin levels are low — when you haven't eaten in a while, for example — your liver releases the stored glucose to keep your glucose level within a normal range.
In type 2 diabetes, this process works improperly. Instead of moving into your cells, sugar builds up in your bloodstream. This occurs when your pancreas doesn't make enough insulin or your cells become resistant to the action of insulin. Exactly why this happens is uncertain, although excess fat — especially abdominal fat — and inactivity seem to be important factors.
Symptoms
Type 2 diabetes symptoms may seem harmless at first. In fact, you can have type 2 diabetes for years and not even know it. Look for:
Increased thirst and frequent urination. As excess sugar builds up in your bloodstream, fluid is pulled from your tissues. This may leave you thirsty. As a result, you may drink — and urinate — more than usual.
Extreme hunger. Without enough insulin to move sugar into your cells, your muscles and organs become depleted of energy. This triggers intense hunger that may persist even after you eat.
Weight loss. Despite eating more than usual to relieve your constant hunger, you may lose weight. Without the energy sugar supplies, your muscle tissues and fat stores may simply shrink.
Fatigue. If your cells are deprived of sugar, you may become tired and irritable.
Blurred vision. If your blood sugar level is too high, fluid may be pulled from your tissues — including the lenses of your eyes. This may affect your ability to focus.
Slow-healing sores or frequent infections. Type 2 diabetes affects your ability to heal and fight infections. Bladder and vaginal infections can be a particular problem for women.
Some people who have type 2 diabetes have patches of dark, velvety skin in the folds and creases of their bodies — usually in the armpits and neck. This condition, called acanthosis nigricans, is a sign of insulin resistance
Risk factors
Researchers don't fully understand why some people develop type 2 diabetes and others don't. It's clear that certain factors increase the risk, however, including:
Weight. Being overweight is a primary risk factor for type 2 diabetes. The more fatty tissue you have, the more resistant your cells become to insulin.
Inactivity. The less active you are, the greater your risk of type 2 diabetes. Physical activity helps you control your weight, uses up glucose as energy and makes your cells more sensitive to insulin.
Family history. The risk of type 2 diabetes increases if a parent or sibling has type 2 diabetes.
Race. Although it's unclear why, people of certain races — including blacks, Hispanics, American Indians and Asian Americans — are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes.
Age. The risk of type 2 diabetes increases as you get older, especially after age 45. Often, that's because people tend to exercise less, lose muscle mass and gain weight as they age. But type 2 diabetes is increasing dramatically among children, adolescents and younger adults.
Prediabetes. Prediabetes is a condition in which your blood sugar level is higher than normal, but not high enough to be classified as type 2 diabetes. Left untreated, prediabetes often progresses to type 2 diabetes.
Gestational diabetes. If you developed gestational diabetes when you were pregnant, your risk of developing type 2 diabetes later increases. If you gave birth to a baby weighing more than 9 pounds, you're also at risk of type 2 diabetes.
Carbohydrates are one of the major food categories (the others include proteins and fats) in a type 2 diabetes diet. They provide fuel for the body in the form of glucose. Glucose is a sugar that is the primary means of energy for all of the body's cells.
There are two ways to classify carbohydrates -- simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates are sugars -- like glucose, sucrose, lactose, and fructose. They are found in refined sugar and in fruits. Complex carbohydrates are the starches, which are the simple sugars bonded together chemically -- they are found in beans, nuts, vegetables, and whole grains. Complex carbohydrates are considered healthier mostly because they are digested by the body slowly, providing a steady source of energy. They also contain valuable amounts of fiber.
Carbohydrates, rather than fats or proteins, have the most immediate effect on your blood glucose since carbohydrates are broken down directly into sugar early during digestion. It is important to eat the suggested amount of carbohydrate at each meal, along with some protein and fat.
Carbohydrates are mainly found in the following food groups:
Fruit
Milk and yogurt
Bread, cereal, rice, pasta
Starchy vegetables like potatoes