This document provides a review of algorithms that have been developed for processing fundus fluorescein angiogram (FFA) images to detect diabetic maculopathy. It begins with an introduction that describes diabetic maculopathy and the role of FFA images in its detection and analysis. It then discusses the goals and structure of the review, which includes classifying literature based on common image processing steps like preprocessing, segmentation, and quantification. The document reviews various algorithms for enhancing FFA images, segmenting the foveal avascular zone, and quantifying areas of macular leakage and lesions. It concludes by identifying opportunities for further research.
Automated histopathological image analysis: a review on ROI extractioniosrjce
IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering (IOSR-JCE) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of computer engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in computer technology. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Performance analysis of retinal image blood vessel segmentationacijjournal
The retinal image diagnosis
is an important methodology for diabetic retinopathy detection and analysis. in
this paper, the morphological operations and svm classifier are used to detect and segment the blood
vessels from the retinal image. the proposed system consists of three stage
s
-
first is preprocessing of retinal
image to separate the green channel and second stage is retinal image enhancement and third stage is
blood vessel segmentation using morphological operations and svm classifier. the performance of the
proposed system is
analyzed using publicly available dataset
Segmentation of the Blood Vessel and Optic Disc in Retinal Images Using EM Al...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering (IOSR-JCE) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of computer engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in computer technology. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Detection of Glaucoma using Optic Disk and Incremental Cup Segmentation from ...theijes
Medical researchers, detection of eye disease is very important because it may causes blindness. Glaucoma is one of the diseases that cause blindness. Standard procedure for detection glaucoma is to analysis of optic disk (OD) and cup region in retinal image. In this paper, introduce an automatic OD parameterized technique which is based on segmentation and Incremental Cup segmentation. The incremental cup segmentation method is based on anatomical evidence such as vessel bends at the cup boundary, considered relevant by glaucoma experts. Bends in a vessel are robustly detected using a region of support concept, which automatically selects the right scale for analysis. A multi-stage strategy is applied to derive a reliable subset of vessel bends called r-bends followed by a local 2-D spline fitting to derive the desired cup boundary. The results are compared with existing methods using different retinal images.
Review of methods for diabetic retinopathy detection and severity classificationeSAT Journals
Abstract Diabetic Retinopathy is a serious vascular disorder that might lead to complete blindness. Therefore, the early detection and the treatment are necessary to prevent major vision loss. Though the Manual screening methods are available, they are time consuming and inefficient on a large image database of patients. Moreover, it demands skilled professionals for the diagnosis. Automatic Diabetic Retinopathy diagnosis systems can replace manual methods as they can significantly reduce the manual labor involved in the screening process. Screening conducted over a larger population can become efficient if the system can separate normal and abnormal cases, instead of the manual examination of all images. Therefore, Automatic Retinopathy detection systems have attracted large popularity in the recent times. Automatic retinopathy detection systems employ image processing and computer vision techniques to detect different anomalies associated with retinopathy. This paper reviews various methods of diabetic retinopathy detection and classification into different stages based on severity levels and also, various image databases used for the research purpose are discussed. Keywords— Automatic Diabetic Retinopathy detection, computer vision, Diabetic Retinopathy, image databases, image processing, manual screening
An Approach for the Detection of Vascular Abnormalities in Diabetic Retinopathyijdmtaiir
Diabetic Retinopathy is a common complication of
diabetes that is caused by changes in the blood vessels of the
retina. The blood vessels in the retina get altered. Exudates are
secreted, micro-aneurysms and hemorrhages occur in the
retina. The appearance of these features represents the degree
of severity of the disease. In this paper the proposed approach
detects the presence of abnormalities in the retina using image
processing techniques by applying morphological processing
techniques to the fundus images to extract features such as
blood vessels, micro aneurysms and exudates. These features
are used for the detection of severity of Diabetic Retinopathy.
It can quickly process a large number of fundus images
obtained from mass screening to help reduce the cost, increase
productivity and efficiency for ophthalmologists.
Automated histopathological image analysis: a review on ROI extractioniosrjce
IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering (IOSR-JCE) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of computer engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in computer technology. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Performance analysis of retinal image blood vessel segmentationacijjournal
The retinal image diagnosis
is an important methodology for diabetic retinopathy detection and analysis. in
this paper, the morphological operations and svm classifier are used to detect and segment the blood
vessels from the retinal image. the proposed system consists of three stage
s
-
first is preprocessing of retinal
image to separate the green channel and second stage is retinal image enhancement and third stage is
blood vessel segmentation using morphological operations and svm classifier. the performance of the
proposed system is
analyzed using publicly available dataset
Segmentation of the Blood Vessel and Optic Disc in Retinal Images Using EM Al...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering (IOSR-JCE) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of computer engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in computer technology. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Detection of Glaucoma using Optic Disk and Incremental Cup Segmentation from ...theijes
Medical researchers, detection of eye disease is very important because it may causes blindness. Glaucoma is one of the diseases that cause blindness. Standard procedure for detection glaucoma is to analysis of optic disk (OD) and cup region in retinal image. In this paper, introduce an automatic OD parameterized technique which is based on segmentation and Incremental Cup segmentation. The incremental cup segmentation method is based on anatomical evidence such as vessel bends at the cup boundary, considered relevant by glaucoma experts. Bends in a vessel are robustly detected using a region of support concept, which automatically selects the right scale for analysis. A multi-stage strategy is applied to derive a reliable subset of vessel bends called r-bends followed by a local 2-D spline fitting to derive the desired cup boundary. The results are compared with existing methods using different retinal images.
Review of methods for diabetic retinopathy detection and severity classificationeSAT Journals
Abstract Diabetic Retinopathy is a serious vascular disorder that might lead to complete blindness. Therefore, the early detection and the treatment are necessary to prevent major vision loss. Though the Manual screening methods are available, they are time consuming and inefficient on a large image database of patients. Moreover, it demands skilled professionals for the diagnosis. Automatic Diabetic Retinopathy diagnosis systems can replace manual methods as they can significantly reduce the manual labor involved in the screening process. Screening conducted over a larger population can become efficient if the system can separate normal and abnormal cases, instead of the manual examination of all images. Therefore, Automatic Retinopathy detection systems have attracted large popularity in the recent times. Automatic retinopathy detection systems employ image processing and computer vision techniques to detect different anomalies associated with retinopathy. This paper reviews various methods of diabetic retinopathy detection and classification into different stages based on severity levels and also, various image databases used for the research purpose are discussed. Keywords— Automatic Diabetic Retinopathy detection, computer vision, Diabetic Retinopathy, image databases, image processing, manual screening
An Approach for the Detection of Vascular Abnormalities in Diabetic Retinopathyijdmtaiir
Diabetic Retinopathy is a common complication of
diabetes that is caused by changes in the blood vessels of the
retina. The blood vessels in the retina get altered. Exudates are
secreted, micro-aneurysms and hemorrhages occur in the
retina. The appearance of these features represents the degree
of severity of the disease. In this paper the proposed approach
detects the presence of abnormalities in the retina using image
processing techniques by applying morphological processing
techniques to the fundus images to extract features such as
blood vessels, micro aneurysms and exudates. These features
are used for the detection of severity of Diabetic Retinopathy.
It can quickly process a large number of fundus images
obtained from mass screening to help reduce the cost, increase
productivity and efficiency for ophthalmologists.
Automatic identification and classification of microaneurysms for detection o...eSAT Journals
Abstract Headlights of vehicles pose a great danger during night driving. The drivers of most vehicles use high, bright beam while driving at night. This causes a discomfort to the person travelling from the opposite direction. He experiences a sudden glare for a short period of time. This is caused due to the high intense headlight beam from the other vehicle coming towards him from the opposite direction. We are expected to dim the headlight to avoid this glare. This glare causes a temporary blindness to a person resulting in road accidents during the night. To avoid such incidents, we have fabricated a prototype of automatic headlight dimmer. This automatically switches the high beam into low beam thus reducing the glare effect by sensing the approaching vehicle. It also eliminates the requirement of manual switching by the driver which is not done at all times. The construction, working and the advantages of this prototype model is discussed in detail in this paper. Keywords: Headlight, automatic, dimmer, control, high beam, low beam, Kelvin (K).
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Automatic detection of microaneurysms and hemorrhages in color eye fundus imagesijcsit
This paper presents an approach for automatic detection of microaneurysms and hemorrhages in fundus
images. These lesions are considered the earliest signs of diabetic retinopathy. The diabetic retinopathy is
a disease caused by diabetes and is considered as the major cause of blindness in working age population.
The proposed method is based on mathematical morphology and consists in removing components of
retinal anatomy to reach the lesions. This method consists of five stages: a) pre-processing; b)
enhancement of low intensity structures; c) detection of blood vessels; d) elimination of blood vessels; e)
elimination of the fovea. The accuracy of the method was tested on a public database of fundus images,
where it achieved satisfactory results, comparable to other methods from the literature, reporting 87.69%
and 92.44% of mean sensitivity and specificity, respectively.
AUTOMATED DETECTION OF HARD EXUDATES IN FUNDUS IMAGES USING IMPROVED OTSU THR...IJCSES Journal
One common cause of visual impairment among people of working age in the industrialized countries is
Diabetic Retinopathy (DR). Automatic recognition of hard exudates (EXs) which is one of DR lesions in
fundus images can contribute to the diagnosis and screening of DR.The aim of this paper was to
automatically detect those lesions from fundus images. At first,green channel of each original fundus image
was segmented by improved Otsu thresholding based on minimum inner-cluster variance, and candidate
regions of EXs were obtained. Then, we extracted features of candidate regions and selected a subset which
best discriminates EXs from the retinal background by means of logistic regression (LR). The selected
features were subsequently used as inputs to a SVM to get a final segmentation result of EXs in the image.
Our database was composed of 120 images with variable color, brightness, and quality. 70 of them were
used to train the SVM and the remaining 50 to assess the performance of the method. Using a lesion based
criterion, we achieved a mean sensitivity of 95.05% and a mean positive predictive value of 95.37%. With
an image-based criterion, our approach reached a 100% mean sensitivity, 90.9% mean specificity and
96.0% mean accuracy. Furthermore, the average time cost in processing an image is 8.31 seconds. These
results suggest that the proposed method could be a diagnostic aid for ophthalmologists in the screening
for DR.
An Automated Systems for the Detection of Macular Ischemia based-Diabetic Ret...iosrjce
The proposed methodology in this paper marks out application for automatic detection of eye
diseases called Macular Ischemia using image processing techniques. In semi urban and rural areas large
percentages of people suffer from various eye diseases. For diagnoses of various eye diseases, Image processing
technique is used. . Diseases occur in Macula from retinal images have a huge type of textures, shapes and at
times they are difficult to be recognised and identified by doctors. Thus we are trying to optimize and develop
such system which is based on smart image recognition/classification algorithms. This proposed system
provides accuracy, uniformity and speed in performance and a high credence coefficient in results interpreting.
Keywords: Macular Ischemia, diagnosis, textures, consistence
Early Detection of High Blood Pressure and Diabetic Retinopathy on Retinal Fu...IJAAS Team
In this paper we present a lifting wavelet based CBRIR image retrieval system that uses color and texture as visual features to describe the content of a retinal fundus images. Our contribution is of three directions. First, we use lifting wavelets 9/7 for lossy and SPL5/3 for lossless to extract texture features from arbitrary shaped retinal fundus regions separated from an image to increase the system effectiveness. This process is performed offline before query processing, therefore to answer a query our system does not need to search the entire database images; instead just a number of similar class type patient images are required to be searched for image similarity. Third, to further increase the retrieval accuracy of our system, we combine the region based features extracted from image regions, with global features extracted from the whole image, which are texture using lifting wavelet and HSV color histograms. Our proposed system has the advantage of increasing the retrieval accuracy and decreasing the retrieval time. The experimental evaluation of the system is based on a db1 online retinal fundus color image database. From the experimental results, it is evident that our system performs significantly better accuracy as compared with traditional wavelet based systems. In our simulation analysis, we provide a comparison between retrieval results based on features extracted from the whole image using lossless 5/3 lifting wavelet and features extracted using lossless 9/7 lifting wavelet and using traditional wavelet. The results demonstrate that each type of feature is effective for a particular type of disease of retinal fundus images according to its semantic contents, and using lossless 5/3 lifting wavelet of them gives better retrieval results for almost all semantic classes and outperform 4-10% more accuracy than traditional wavelet.
Review of methods for diabetic retinopathy detection and severity classificationeSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
The legal cause of blindness for the workingage
population in western countries is Diabetic Retinopathy - a
complication of diabetes mellitus - is a severe and wide- spread
eye disease. Digital color fundus images are becoming
increasingly important for the diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy.
In order to facilitate and improve diagnosis in different ways, this
fact opens the possibility of applying image processing techniques
.Microaneurysms is the earliest sign of DR, therefore an
algorithm able to automatically detect the microaneurysms in
fundus image captured. Since microaneurysms is a necessary
preprocessing step for a correct diagnosis. Some methods that
address this problem can be found in the literature but they have
some drawbacks like accuracy or speed. The aim of this thesis is
to develop and test a new method for detecting the
microaneurysms in retina images. To do so preprocessing, gray
level 2D feature based vessel extraction is done using neural
network by using extra neurons which is evaluated on DRIVE
database which is superior than rulebased methods. To identify
microaneurysms in an image morphological opening and image
enhancement is performed. The complete algorithm is developed
by using a MATLAB implementation and the diagnosis in an
image can be estimated with the better accuracy and in shorter
time than previous techniques
Morphological Based Approach for Identification of Red Lesion in Diabetic Ret...Editor IJMTER
One of the common causes of visionloss and blindness in patients with diabetes is
Diabetic Retinopathy.The damage to the retina of human eye caused by the complication of
increase in blood glucose level consequently leading to blindness is termed as Diabetic retinopathy.
The longer the patient has diabetes the higher the chance of developing diabetic retinopathy [1].No
specific symptoms are seen in DR patients until the illness is at the final stage. Thus , prior detection
and timely treatment has to be ensured. Dark lesions such as Microaneurysms and Hemorrhages or
bright lesions like Exudates are the visible symotoms of Diabetic Retinopathy [3]. Microaneurysms
are reddish in color with a diameter less than 125 µm,which turn into hemorrhages at a later stage
[6]. Conventionally , An ophthalmologist visualizes the blood vessels of the patient’s brain using an
ophthalmoscope . This method is often time consuming and requires fluorescein angiograms for
precise diagnosis. Moreover , it also requires highly trained and skilled clinicians to perform the DR
severity grading technique. Tis paper presents a low cost retinal algorithm for detecting
microaneurysms and hemorrhages which will assist opthalmologists across the globe in timely
detection of diabetic retinopathy.
Retinal image analysis using morphological process and clustering techniquesipij
This paper proposes a method for the Retinal image analysis through efficient detection of exudates and
recognizes the retina to be normal or abnormal. The contrast image is enhanced by curvelet transform.
Hence, morphology operators are applied to the enhanced image in order to find the retinal image ridges.
A simple thresholding method along with opening and closing operation indicates the remained ridges
belonging to vessels. The clustering method is used for effective detection of exudates of eye. Experimental
result proves that the blood vessels and exudates can be effectively detected by applying this method on the
retinal images. Fundus images of the retina were collected from a reputed eye clinic and 110 images were
trained and tested in order to extract the exudates and blood vessels. In this system we use the Probabilistic
Neural Network (PNN) for training and testing the pre-processed images. The results showed the retina is
normal or abnormal thereby analyzing the retinal image efficiently. There is 98% accuracy in the detection
of the exudates in the retina .
GLAUCOMA is a chronic eye disease that can damage optic nerve. According to WHO It
is the second leading cause of blindness, and is predicted to affect around 80 million people by 2020.
Development of the disease leads to loss of vision, which occurs increasingly over a long period of
time. As the symptoms only occur when the disease is quite advanced so that glaucoma is called the
silent thief of sight. Glaucoma cannot be cured, but its development can be slowed down by
treatment. Therefore, detecting glaucoma in time is critical. However, many glaucoma patients are
unaware of the disease until it has reached its advanced stage. In this paper, some manual and
automatic methods are discussed to detect glaucoma. Manual analysis of the eye is time consuming
and the accuracy of the parameter measurements also varies with different clinicians. To overcome
these problems with manual analysis, the objective of this survey is to introduce a method to
automatically analyze the ultrasound images of the eye. Automatic analysis of this disease is much
more effective than manual analysis.
Wireless data transmission through uart port using arm & rf transceivereSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Effect of height of triangular siil on the performance of stilling basin modeleSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Automatic identification and classification of microaneurysms for detection o...eSAT Journals
Abstract Headlights of vehicles pose a great danger during night driving. The drivers of most vehicles use high, bright beam while driving at night. This causes a discomfort to the person travelling from the opposite direction. He experiences a sudden glare for a short period of time. This is caused due to the high intense headlight beam from the other vehicle coming towards him from the opposite direction. We are expected to dim the headlight to avoid this glare. This glare causes a temporary blindness to a person resulting in road accidents during the night. To avoid such incidents, we have fabricated a prototype of automatic headlight dimmer. This automatically switches the high beam into low beam thus reducing the glare effect by sensing the approaching vehicle. It also eliminates the requirement of manual switching by the driver which is not done at all times. The construction, working and the advantages of this prototype model is discussed in detail in this paper. Keywords: Headlight, automatic, dimmer, control, high beam, low beam, Kelvin (K).
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Automatic detection of microaneurysms and hemorrhages in color eye fundus imagesijcsit
This paper presents an approach for automatic detection of microaneurysms and hemorrhages in fundus
images. These lesions are considered the earliest signs of diabetic retinopathy. The diabetic retinopathy is
a disease caused by diabetes and is considered as the major cause of blindness in working age population.
The proposed method is based on mathematical morphology and consists in removing components of
retinal anatomy to reach the lesions. This method consists of five stages: a) pre-processing; b)
enhancement of low intensity structures; c) detection of blood vessels; d) elimination of blood vessels; e)
elimination of the fovea. The accuracy of the method was tested on a public database of fundus images,
where it achieved satisfactory results, comparable to other methods from the literature, reporting 87.69%
and 92.44% of mean sensitivity and specificity, respectively.
AUTOMATED DETECTION OF HARD EXUDATES IN FUNDUS IMAGES USING IMPROVED OTSU THR...IJCSES Journal
One common cause of visual impairment among people of working age in the industrialized countries is
Diabetic Retinopathy (DR). Automatic recognition of hard exudates (EXs) which is one of DR lesions in
fundus images can contribute to the diagnosis and screening of DR.The aim of this paper was to
automatically detect those lesions from fundus images. At first,green channel of each original fundus image
was segmented by improved Otsu thresholding based on minimum inner-cluster variance, and candidate
regions of EXs were obtained. Then, we extracted features of candidate regions and selected a subset which
best discriminates EXs from the retinal background by means of logistic regression (LR). The selected
features were subsequently used as inputs to a SVM to get a final segmentation result of EXs in the image.
Our database was composed of 120 images with variable color, brightness, and quality. 70 of them were
used to train the SVM and the remaining 50 to assess the performance of the method. Using a lesion based
criterion, we achieved a mean sensitivity of 95.05% and a mean positive predictive value of 95.37%. With
an image-based criterion, our approach reached a 100% mean sensitivity, 90.9% mean specificity and
96.0% mean accuracy. Furthermore, the average time cost in processing an image is 8.31 seconds. These
results suggest that the proposed method could be a diagnostic aid for ophthalmologists in the screening
for DR.
An Automated Systems for the Detection of Macular Ischemia based-Diabetic Ret...iosrjce
The proposed methodology in this paper marks out application for automatic detection of eye
diseases called Macular Ischemia using image processing techniques. In semi urban and rural areas large
percentages of people suffer from various eye diseases. For diagnoses of various eye diseases, Image processing
technique is used. . Diseases occur in Macula from retinal images have a huge type of textures, shapes and at
times they are difficult to be recognised and identified by doctors. Thus we are trying to optimize and develop
such system which is based on smart image recognition/classification algorithms. This proposed system
provides accuracy, uniformity and speed in performance and a high credence coefficient in results interpreting.
Keywords: Macular Ischemia, diagnosis, textures, consistence
Early Detection of High Blood Pressure and Diabetic Retinopathy on Retinal Fu...IJAAS Team
In this paper we present a lifting wavelet based CBRIR image retrieval system that uses color and texture as visual features to describe the content of a retinal fundus images. Our contribution is of three directions. First, we use lifting wavelets 9/7 for lossy and SPL5/3 for lossless to extract texture features from arbitrary shaped retinal fundus regions separated from an image to increase the system effectiveness. This process is performed offline before query processing, therefore to answer a query our system does not need to search the entire database images; instead just a number of similar class type patient images are required to be searched for image similarity. Third, to further increase the retrieval accuracy of our system, we combine the region based features extracted from image regions, with global features extracted from the whole image, which are texture using lifting wavelet and HSV color histograms. Our proposed system has the advantage of increasing the retrieval accuracy and decreasing the retrieval time. The experimental evaluation of the system is based on a db1 online retinal fundus color image database. From the experimental results, it is evident that our system performs significantly better accuracy as compared with traditional wavelet based systems. In our simulation analysis, we provide a comparison between retrieval results based on features extracted from the whole image using lossless 5/3 lifting wavelet and features extracted using lossless 9/7 lifting wavelet and using traditional wavelet. The results demonstrate that each type of feature is effective for a particular type of disease of retinal fundus images according to its semantic contents, and using lossless 5/3 lifting wavelet of them gives better retrieval results for almost all semantic classes and outperform 4-10% more accuracy than traditional wavelet.
Review of methods for diabetic retinopathy detection and severity classificationeSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
The legal cause of blindness for the workingage
population in western countries is Diabetic Retinopathy - a
complication of diabetes mellitus - is a severe and wide- spread
eye disease. Digital color fundus images are becoming
increasingly important for the diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy.
In order to facilitate and improve diagnosis in different ways, this
fact opens the possibility of applying image processing techniques
.Microaneurysms is the earliest sign of DR, therefore an
algorithm able to automatically detect the microaneurysms in
fundus image captured. Since microaneurysms is a necessary
preprocessing step for a correct diagnosis. Some methods that
address this problem can be found in the literature but they have
some drawbacks like accuracy or speed. The aim of this thesis is
to develop and test a new method for detecting the
microaneurysms in retina images. To do so preprocessing, gray
level 2D feature based vessel extraction is done using neural
network by using extra neurons which is evaluated on DRIVE
database which is superior than rulebased methods. To identify
microaneurysms in an image morphological opening and image
enhancement is performed. The complete algorithm is developed
by using a MATLAB implementation and the diagnosis in an
image can be estimated with the better accuracy and in shorter
time than previous techniques
Morphological Based Approach for Identification of Red Lesion in Diabetic Ret...Editor IJMTER
One of the common causes of visionloss and blindness in patients with diabetes is
Diabetic Retinopathy.The damage to the retina of human eye caused by the complication of
increase in blood glucose level consequently leading to blindness is termed as Diabetic retinopathy.
The longer the patient has diabetes the higher the chance of developing diabetic retinopathy [1].No
specific symptoms are seen in DR patients until the illness is at the final stage. Thus , prior detection
and timely treatment has to be ensured. Dark lesions such as Microaneurysms and Hemorrhages or
bright lesions like Exudates are the visible symotoms of Diabetic Retinopathy [3]. Microaneurysms
are reddish in color with a diameter less than 125 µm,which turn into hemorrhages at a later stage
[6]. Conventionally , An ophthalmologist visualizes the blood vessels of the patient’s brain using an
ophthalmoscope . This method is often time consuming and requires fluorescein angiograms for
precise diagnosis. Moreover , it also requires highly trained and skilled clinicians to perform the DR
severity grading technique. Tis paper presents a low cost retinal algorithm for detecting
microaneurysms and hemorrhages which will assist opthalmologists across the globe in timely
detection of diabetic retinopathy.
Retinal image analysis using morphological process and clustering techniquesipij
This paper proposes a method for the Retinal image analysis through efficient detection of exudates and
recognizes the retina to be normal or abnormal. The contrast image is enhanced by curvelet transform.
Hence, morphology operators are applied to the enhanced image in order to find the retinal image ridges.
A simple thresholding method along with opening and closing operation indicates the remained ridges
belonging to vessels. The clustering method is used for effective detection of exudates of eye. Experimental
result proves that the blood vessels and exudates can be effectively detected by applying this method on the
retinal images. Fundus images of the retina were collected from a reputed eye clinic and 110 images were
trained and tested in order to extract the exudates and blood vessels. In this system we use the Probabilistic
Neural Network (PNN) for training and testing the pre-processed images. The results showed the retina is
normal or abnormal thereby analyzing the retinal image efficiently. There is 98% accuracy in the detection
of the exudates in the retina .
GLAUCOMA is a chronic eye disease that can damage optic nerve. According to WHO It
is the second leading cause of blindness, and is predicted to affect around 80 million people by 2020.
Development of the disease leads to loss of vision, which occurs increasingly over a long period of
time. As the symptoms only occur when the disease is quite advanced so that glaucoma is called the
silent thief of sight. Glaucoma cannot be cured, but its development can be slowed down by
treatment. Therefore, detecting glaucoma in time is critical. However, many glaucoma patients are
unaware of the disease until it has reached its advanced stage. In this paper, some manual and
automatic methods are discussed to detect glaucoma. Manual analysis of the eye is time consuming
and the accuracy of the parameter measurements also varies with different clinicians. To overcome
these problems with manual analysis, the objective of this survey is to introduce a method to
automatically analyze the ultrasound images of the eye. Automatic analysis of this disease is much
more effective than manual analysis.
Wireless data transmission through uart port using arm & rf transceivereSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Effect of height of triangular siil on the performance of stilling basin modeleSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Root cause failure analysis of blanking device of strainer housing used in st...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Log into android mobile to fetch the device oriented information using remote...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Design and implementation of address generator for wi max deinterleaver on fpgaeSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Analyzing the rainfall and temperature influence on municipal water consumpti...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Stability analysis of open pit slope by finite difference methodeSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Automated system to detect rf leakage from microwave oven using raspberry pieSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
A Deep Learning Approach To Evaluation Of Augmented Evidence Of Diabetic Reti...Christo Ananth
Christo Ananth, D.R. Denslin Brabin, Jenifer Darling Rosita, “A Deep Learning Approach To Evaluation Of Augmented Evidence Of Diabetic Retinopathy”, Turkish Journal of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Volume 32,Issue 3, December 2021,pp. 11813-11817.
Description:
Christo Ananth et al. discussed about diabetic retinopathy from retinal pictures utilizing cooperation and information on state of the art sign dealing with and picture preparing. The Pre-Processing stage remedies the lopsided lighting in fundus pictures and furthermore kills the fight in the picture. Although the Disease Classifier step was used to identify arising wounds and other data, the Division stage divides the image into two distinct classes. The methodology for ensuring red spots, exhausting and recognizing evidence of vein-lobby hybrid focuses was also developed in this work, using the hidden data, shape, size, object length to expansiveness distribution as contained in the general fundus picture in the problem area. Besides the Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) analysis, two graphical user interfaces (GUIs) were produced throughout this project. The primary GUI is for the mix of sore information data and was utilized by the ophthalmologist in venturing pictures for enlightening assortment, while the subsequent GUI is for redone diagnosing and showing the examination to accomplish a significantly seriously satisfying UI.
Automatic Detection of Non-Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy Using Fundus Im...iosrjce
To diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) it is the prime cause of blindness in the working age
population of the world. Detection method is proposed to detect dark or red lesions such as microaneurysms
and hemorrhages in fundus images.Developed during this work, this first is for collection of lesion data
information and was used by the ophthalmologist in marking images for database while the automatic
diagnosing and displaying the diagnosis result in a more friendly user interface and is as shown in chapter
three of this report. The primary aim of this project is to develop a system that will be able to identify patients
with BDR and PDR from either colour image or grey level image obtained from the retina of the patient. The
algorithm was tested fundus images. The Operating Characteristics (ROC) was determined for red spot lesion
and bleeding, while cross over points were only detected leaving further classification as part of future work
needed to complete this global project. Sensitivity and specificity was calculated for the algorithm is given
respectively as 96.3% and 95.1%
Discovering Abnormal Patches and Transformations of Diabetics Retinopathy in ...cscpconf
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the retinal diseases due to long-term effect of diabetes.
Early detection for diabetic retinopathy is crucial since timely treatment can prevent
progressive loss of vision. The most common diagnosis technique of diabetic retinopathy is to
screen abnormalities through retinal fundus images by clinicians. However, limited number of
well-trained clinicians increase the possibilities of misdiagnosing. In this work, we propose a
big-data-driven automatic computer-aided diagnosing (CAD) system for diabetic retinopathy
severity regression based on transfer learning, which starts from a deep convolutional neural
network pre-trained on generic images, and adapts it to large-scale DR datasets. From images
in the training set, we also automatically segment the abnormal patches with an occlusion test,
and model the transformations and deterioration process of DR. Our results can be widely used
for fast diagnosis of DR, medical education and public-level healthcare propagation.
DISCOVERING ABNORMAL PATCHES AND TRANSFORMATIONS OF DIABETICS RETINOPATHY IN ...csandit
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the retinal diseases due to long-term effect of diabetes.Early detection for diabetic retinopathy is crucial since timely treatment can prevent
progressive loss of vision. The most common diagnosis technique of diabetic retinopathy is to screen abnormalities through retinal fundus images by clinicians. However, limited number of well-trained clinicians increase the possibilities of misdiagnosing. In this work, we propose a big-data-driven automatic computer-aided diagnosing (CAD) system for diabetic retinopathy severity regression based on transfer learning, which starts from a deep convolutional neural
network pre-trained on generic images, and adapts it to large-scale DR datasets. From images in the training set, we also automatically segment the abnormal patches with an occlusion test,and model the transformations and deterioration process of DR. Our results can be widely used for fast diagnosis of DR, medical education and public-level healthcare propagation.
Automated Screening of Diabetic Retinopathy Using Image Processingiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences(IOSR-JPBS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of Pharmacy and Biological Science. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in Pharmacy and Biological Science. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
C LASSIFICATION O F D IABETES R ETINA I MAGES U SING B LOOD V ESSEL A REASIJCI JOURNAL
Retina images are obtained from the fundus camera a
nd graded by skilled professionals. However there i
s
considerable shortage of expert observers has encou
raged computer assisted monitoring. Evaluation of
blood vessels network plays an important task in a
variety of medical diagnosis. Manifestations of
numerous vascular disorders, such as diabetic retin
opathy, depend on detection of the blood vessels
network. In this work the fundus RGB image is used
for obtaining the traces of blood vessels and areas
of
blood vessels are used for detection of Diabetic Re
tinopathy (DR). The algorithm developed uses
morphological operation to extract blood vessels. M
ainly two steps are used: firstly enhancement opera
tion
is applied to original retina image to remove noise
and increase contrast of retinal blood vessels. Se
condly
morphology operations are used to take out blood ve
ssels. Experiments are conducted on publicly availa
ble
DIARETDB1 database. Experimental results obtained b
y using gray-scale images have been presented.
A review on implementation of algorithms for detection of diabetic retinopathyeSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
A review on implementation of algorithms for detection of diabetic retinopathyeSAT Journals
Abstract Diabetes is a group of metabolic disease in which a person has high blood sugar. Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) is caused by the abnormalities in the retina due to insufficient insulin in the body. It can lead to sudden vision loss due to delayed detection of retinopathy. So that Diabetic patients require regular medical checkup for effective timing of sight –saving treatment. This is continuous and stimulating research area for automated analysis of Diabetic Retinopathy in Diabetic patients. A completely automated screening system for the detection of Diabetic Retinopathy can effectively reduces the burden of the specialist and saves cost as well as time. Due to noise and other disturbances that occur during image acquisition Diabetic Retinopathy may lead to false detection and this is overcome by various image processing techniques. Further the different features are extracted which serves as the guideline to identify and grade the severity of the disease. Based on the extracted features classification of the retinal image as normal or abnormal is carried out. In this paper, we have presented detail study of various screening methods for Diabetic Retinopathy. Many researchers have made number of attempts to improve accuracy, predictivity, sensitivity and specificity. Keywords: Color Fundus Images, Diabetic Retinopathy, Exudates, Lesions.
Rapid detection of diabetic retinopathy in retinal images: a new approach usi...IJECEIAES
The challenge of early detection of diabetic retinopathy (DR), a leading cause of vision loss in working-age individuals in developed nations, was addressed in this study. Current manual analysis of digital color fundus photographs by clinicians, although thorough, suffers from slow result turnaround, delaying necessary treatment. To expedite detection and improve treatment timeliness, a novel automated detection system for DR was developed. This system utilized convolutional neural networks. Visual geometry group 16-layer network (VGG16), a pre-trained deep learning model, for feature extraction from retinal images and the synthetic minority over-sampling technique (SMOTE) to handle class imbalance in the dataset. The system was designed to classify images into five categories: normal, mild DR, moderate DR, severe DR, and proliferative DR (PDR). Assessment of the system using the Kaggle diabetic retinopathy dataset resulted in a promising 93.94% accuracy during the training phase and 88.19% during validation. These results highlight the system's potential to enhance DR diagnosis speed and efficiency, leading to improved patient outcomes. The study concluded that automation and artificial intelligence (AI) could play a significant role in timely and efficient disease detection and management.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdf
Diabetic maculopathy detection using fundus fluorescein angiogram images a review
1. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 03 Special Issue: 15 | Dec-2014 | IWCPS-2014, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 1
DIABETIC MACULOPATHY DETECTION USING FUNDUS
FLUORESCEIN ANGIOGRAM IMAGES - A REVIEW
Swapna T R1
, Chandan Chakraborty2
1
Dept. of Computer Science and Engg, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore, Pin – 641112, India
2
School of Medical Science & Technology, IIT Kharagpur, Pin-721302, West Bengal, India
Abstract
Computational retinal imaging and vision based techniques have been assisting ophthalmologists for efficient and rapid screening
and diagnostics, like other healthcare areas. Human retina is the only place in the human circulatory systems that can be seen
using non-invasive techniques like fundus imaging, Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) and invasive technique like
Fluorescein angiograms. Attempts have been progressing towards developing an automatic detection and analysis of many eye
related complications like diabetic retinopathy; age-related macular degeneration and glaucoma. There have been many survey
papers of algorithms for pre-processing, segmentation and classification involving Fundus and OCT images. It has been observed
that fundus fluorescein angiograms (FFA) play an important role in the detection and analysis of diabetic maculopathy which has
become one of the major complications arising due to prolonged diabetes. It is also considered as severe as it affects the central
vision of the human eye. Here we propose to perform a systematic review of the developed algorithms for processing FFA images
of patients suffering from diabetic maculopathy.
Keywords: Fluorescein angiogram; Diabetic Maculopathy, Segmentation, Enhancement and Quantification.
--------------------------------------------------------------------***----------------------------------------------------------------------
1. INTRODUCTION
Diabetes in India has become the most common disease. As
per the WHO report [1], it is observed that there are ~67
million people with confirmed diabetes and another 30
million with pre-diabetes. Prolonged diabetes affects vision
strength leading to a condition called diabetic retinopathy.
Retinopathy has been the prominent cause of vision loss in
India often called as the silent killer of vision. Similarly,
diabetic maculopathy is a pathological condition that affects
the macular region. In effect, it leads to central vision loss in
the eye. Diabetic macular edema (DME) is another major
reason for low vision and blindness mainly in diabetic
population. Visual loss from DME is five times more than
that from Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy (PDR).The
main modalities that are used for detection, classification
and treatment of retinopathy are colour Fundus images,
OCT and FFA images. Among these there had been many
survey papers on the algorithms used for pre-processing,
enhancement, segmentation, classification and
quantification of different phases of retinopathy using colour
Fundus images and OCT images but not in FFA images.
FFA images are clinically used in the treatment of macular
edema and they show with certainty the different stages of
retinopathy and macular leakage in the cases associated with
diabetic maculopathy. It was also found that they provide a
good view of the retinal vessels which are not clearly visible
in the associated colour fundus images [2].
Clinically FFA images affected with diabetic maculopathy
can be classified into four types – focal, diffuse and
ischemic maculopathy. Focal maculopathy is characterized
by microaneurysms, hemorrhages, macular edema and hard
exudates which are visualized as circular pattern. FFA
image reveals leakages which are focal with adequate
perfusion in the macular region. Diffuse maculopathy which
consists of edema in the retinal region which are diffuse in
nature. It is also characterized by posterior pole thickening
with comparatively few hard exudates. Ischemic
maculopathy is characterized by micro-vascular blockage
[3].It is characterized by reduced vision with micro
aneurysms, hemorrhages, existence or non-existence of
macular edema with hard exudates which are less in
number. FFA images shows non-perfusion areas which are
associated with enlargement of Foveal Avascular Zone
(FAZ) in preliminary stage and areas with capillary dropouts
in middle stage and pre capillary arterioles in the advanced
stage.
2. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 03 Special Issue: 15 | Dec-2014 | IWCPS-2014, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 2
FFA of a normal eye FFA with diabetic
maculopathy
FFA images with
focal leaks
FFA images
with diffuse
leaks
FFA images
with ischemic
leaks
1.1 Survey Intentions
The main goals of this survey are:
To survey the literature over four decades in the field
of diabetic maculopathy detection using FFA images.
To give research scholars and educators with a
detailed resource of the main algorithms employed in
FFA analysis and quantification.
To classify the literature into a series of stages.
To identify relevant areas for further research.
Section 2 describes the resources used for the literature
review. Section 3 identifies the potential steps needed for
the development of a system for automatic detection of
diabetic maculopathy. Section 4 provides a survey of the
common image processing steps for detecting and
quantification of diabetic maculopathy. The image
processing operations for enhancing the FFA images,
segmentation of the FAZ and quantification of diabetic
maculopathy depending on the Early Treatment Diabetic
Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) are discussed. We conclude in
Section 5 by discussing recent trends and relevant areas for
further research.
2. SURVEY SCHEME
The survey analyses and classifies the literature on the use
of digital imaging techniques in diabetic maculopathy
spanning four decades. The survey included data extraction
from the internet and digital library of IIT Kharagpur and
categorizing the data into basic image processing steps and
involved a comparative study of various algorithms in a
specific category of image processing step. The following
bibliographic databases were searched: PubMed, IEEE
Xplore Digital Library (IEEE), IEEE Transactions and
Springer LNCS.This study included the use of different
algorithms for detecting the normal and pathological retinal
features associated with diabetic maculopathy in FFA
images. Additional resources describing the algorithms
applied were extracted from the reference lists of the
reviewed articles. The extracted resources were classified
according to the nature of image processing algorithm used.
We also categorized the algorithms based on the
methodology and its outcome. The existing resources for
detection, analysis and classification of diabetic
maculopathy and a brief explanation of the various image
processing algorithm used are given in Section 4.
Though decades have passed, there were only limited
numbers of papers in this area. The algorithms described in
these papers were classified based on basic image
processing steps which are essential for development of
decision making system. The main subcategories are as
follows:
A. Preprocessing - Contrast enhancement.
B. Segmenting the FAZ region.
C. Maculopathy quantification - identifying areas of
macular leakage, micro aneurysms and hard exudates
3 ENHANCEMENTS OF FLUORESCEIN
ANGIOGRAM IMAGES
An early paper on contrast enhancement [4] talks about how
enhancement can be done using Oral Fluorescein
Angiogram images (OFA).This technique is currently
applied to small children and old people for whom the
intravenous access is not possible. Applying commonly used
enhancement technique like histogram equalization had
resulted in little change in the contrast since the important
attribute of the retinal images has been the large distribution
of the contrast within the FFA starting from the
comparatively dark outer region of the FFA to the bright
optic disc. This paper proposes a method called local
contrast enhancement to overcome the problem with
histogram equalization. This is based on the statistics of
small areas within the image. This technique provided more
contrast related to the mean and intensity of those particular
small areas. If the local intensity variation is more, the
algorithm maintains the contrast which is essential for
preserving the retinal and pathological features associated
with diabetic maculopathy. If the local intensity variation is
small there is an increase in local contrast. For a thorough
understanding of this algorithm and related mathematical
concepts, readers are suggested to refer this paper [4]. The
results indicate that the histogram equalization method
increased the image contrast by 14.7% and the method
suggested in this paper improved the image contrast by
around 30%.Most of the images enhanced by this algorithm
were useful for the ophthalmologists compared to the
images enhanced by histogram equalization which lead to
only 58.3% of the images being clinically useful.
Table 1: Summarizes the various enhancement algorithms
which are applied in Fundus and Angiogram images as a
pre-processing step.
Authors Size Method Outcome
Newsom et
al. (2000)
12 Local
contrast
enhancement
clinically useful
than histogram
based
enhancement
3. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 03 Special Issue: 15 | Dec-2014 | IWCPS-2014, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 3
4. SEGMENTATION OF FAZ
4.1 Genetic Snakes
This early paper on medical image segmentation [5] used a
contour model called snakes and suggested minimization of
energy based on Genetic Algorithms to overcome problems
of most optimization algorithms like initialization, getting
stuck in the local minima and the exact selection of
parameters for the model. Assuming that the FAZ is always
positioned in the centre of the FFA, the position of the
origin of the coordinates can be randomly selected by the
user. To calculate the image energy both the magnitude and
direction of the gradient and the Laplacian of Gaussian were
considered. The internal energy controls the snake
properties and the external energy was chosen based on the
properties of the FAZ.
4.2 Bayesian Method
Segmentation of FFA images involved identifying the FAZ
within the macular region. The paper [6] involved using a
Bayesian network for detection of fovea, which is a part of
the eye situated within the macular region. This paper
modeled the foveal boundary by means of a one-
dimensional Markov chain and the intensities are assumed
to be statistically independent and Gaussian. The model
parameters are estimated by means of empirical and
Bayesian methods. The foveal contour was estimated based
on two approaches. They are simulated annealing (SA) and
iterated conditional modes (ICM).
4.3 Level-Set Based Segmentation
The next approach on segmenting the FAZ was based on
level-set method [7] [8] as it has been applied to many
medical imaging applications and are popular for solving
segmentation problems that are complex using powerful
mathematical modeling. Instead of the traditional level-set
method this paper has employed a variational level-set
method [8] which was found to be more convenient and
natural for combining information based on region and
shapes into energy functional that are used in level set and
which led to the production of more robust results. In this
paper, they have assumed the level set function to be close
to a signed distance function. The internal energy term
calculates the error in the deviation of the level set function
from a distance function. The external energy pulls the
level-set to the object boundaries. The result is a gradient
flow which minimizes the overall energy functional. But this
technique requires the manual initialization for the
segmentation program to start. Another paper [9] had
applied a region-growing algorithm to detect the FAZ with
minimum user intervention. The FAZ area that was
calculated was smaller than that measured by doctors and
the difference was statistically significant.
Table 2: Summarizes the various segmentation algorithms
which are applied in Fundus Angiogram images for
segmenting the FAZ.
Authors Method Outcome Remarks
Ballerini
(1999)
Genetic
Snakes
Local
minima and
selection of
parameters
Quantitative
accuracy
Ibanez &
Simo
(1999)
Bayesian
statistical
method
Fovea
contour
obtained by
ICM
responds to
intensity
changes
Realistic
foveal
contours
Conrath
et al.
(2004)
Region
growing in
semi-
automated
fashion
FAZ area
was smaller
than that
measured by
clinicians
The difference
of FAZ
measurements
was
statistically
significant.
Li et. Al.
(2005)
Variational
Level-set
91% of the
images
segmented
were
clinically
valid.
To measure
the ischemic
zones in extra
macular area
of the fundus.
5. QUANTIFICATION OF DIABETIC
MACULOPATHY
The need of quantifying the retinal pathological attributes of
a disease is to monitor the progress of the disease, the
quantification consists of object counting or measuring the
area. Some have experimented with quantification using
morphological analysis of Fluorescein Angiograms [10].
Semi-automated techniques for measuring the hard exudates
are also present which requires human interventions
[11][12],[13]. A method suggested in this paper for
measuring the area of leakage has not found any
applications [14]. A method suggested for identifying the
macular leakage involves comparing two Fluorescein
Angiogram images taken during different time frames after
injecting the dye. The images are aligned and a gradient for
intensity of both FFA images were calculated and ideal
threshold value is chosen and the pixels whose value is less
than this threshold is chosen as the spots of leakage [15].
For identifying the retinal exudates, a threshold based on the
distribution of gray levels in the image is calculated [16].
The only user intervention is for marking the region of
Interest in the image. Finally for identification and
quantification of microaneurysms shade correction and
shape operators are used within a macular area [17][18].
4. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
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Volume: 03 Special Issue: 15 | Dec-2014 | IWCPS-2014, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 4
Table 3: Summarises the various Quantification algorithms
which are applied in Fundus and Angiogram images
Authors Method Outcome Remarks
Baudoin et
al. (1984)
Top-hat
transformation
Microaneurys
m present
within the
fuzzy
boundaries
are the most
difficult to
extract.
Automated
counting
and manual
counting
has been
done.
Ward et al.
(1989)
An exudates
map based on
the binary
image is
generated.
It was used to
monitor the
response of
the object to
laser
treatment.
Philips et
al. (1991)
Intensity to
detect macular
leakage.
Matched
filtering and
shape
operators
Quality of
FFA
images was
poor.
6. DISCUSSION
A survey of algorithms for the enhancement, segmentation,
and quantification of images affected by diabetic
maculopathy are presented. Though Fluorescein Angiogram
images has got some drawback like vomiting and nausea, it
has been suggested in [3] that the Fluorescein Angiogram
images showed with certainty the different kinds of macular
leaks and very much needed for the classification of macular
edema. On the other hand we could find only few algorithms
that address Fluorescein Angiogram image analysis. All the
algorithms developed for classification has been tested on
colour fundus images database like MESSIDOR, STARE
and DIARETDB1 as there is no standard database for
Fluorescein Angiogram images. The need for developing a
database of Fluorescein angiogram images is a desirable
goal. The quantification of maculopathy also had very few
papers which included few techniques which are semi-
automated and one which is clinically non-applicable. In this
paper [19] the Fluorescein Angiograms negatives were
projected onto a matt and the image captured by a video
camera. The image naturally had noise due to the room
lighting, camera aperture and camera angle. It had been
suggested that an improvement over the nature of image
capture and advancement in image processing technologies
will help in quantification of the disease to be successful.
Another problem is not having a standard for quantification
of the disease as it is definitely the clinician who has to
validate the algorithms. The development of an effective
screening tool for diabetic maculopathy which will help the
ophthalmologists for complete analysis of the Fluorescein
Angiograms images is also a highly desirable goal.
7. CONCLUSION
There have been many studies in the area of diabetic
retinopathy using standard databases of coloured fundus
images which are available online. This literature survey
reviewed the algorithms that have been applied in the image
processing domain for the detection, analysis and
quantification of FFA images affected with diabetic
maculopathy. The survey spanned four decades, extracted
and analyzed the papers that have come in FFA images. In
this paper, we have insisted on the development of FFA
database as it is one of the important needs for developing a
system for diagnosis and treatment of diabetic maculopathy
one of the silent killers of vision.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to Acknowledge Dr. Gopal S Pillai,
Head, Department of Ophthalmology, Amrita Institute of
Medical Sciences (AIMS), Kochi for providing valuable
information about diabetic maculopathy.The digital
resources needed for the survey were collected from the
libraries of Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kharagpur.
and Amrita School of Engineering. The authors
acknowledge Dept. of Biotechnology for providing financial
support (BT/PR14073/BID/07/320/2010, Dt.19-02-2013).
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BIOGRAPHIES
Swapna T R is an Assistant Professor in the
Department of Computer Science &
Engineering, Amrita School of
Engineering, Coimbatore and has an
teaching experience of 13 years. She did
her MTech from NIT-Calicut. She is
currently pursuing her PhD from School of Medical Science
and Technology (SMST), IIT Kharagpur. Her research
interests are Medical imaging, Natural language processing
and Machine Learning
Dr. Chandan Chakraborty is currently an
Associate Professor of School of Medical
Science and Technology, IIT Kharagpur.
His research interest includes
computational medical imaging and
informatics, pattern recognition and
machine learning and statistical computing. He received
various awards viz., DAE-Young Scientist Research Award
(2013) IBM-SUR Awards (2011 & 2013), IBM Faculty
Award (2012), USA, and ISCA Young Scientist Award
(2007). His research recognition is substantiated by more
than 60 peer reviewed journal and 2 US patents and several
conference articles. He is also a member of various
professional bodies and editorial boards.