Diabetes describes a group of metabolic diseases in which the person has high blood glucose levels over a prolonged period. Diabetes can be classified into two main types: type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes. Type 1 diabetes was characterized by absolutely lack of the production and secretion of insulin, due to destruction of the insulin producing pancreatic β-cells. Type 2 Diabetes, which was characterized by insulin resistance and the body’s inability to secrete enough insulin.

2. Type 1 Diabetes
Type 2 Diabetes
Types
Pancreas can not
produce insulin
Insulin moves less
glucose to cells
Insulin
Glucose

3. 01
Sulfonylureas
04
Biguanides02
Meglitinides
03
Thiazolidinedions
Sulfonylureas are orally used
insulin secretagogues. They
stimulate insulin secretion by
acting on ATP-sensitive
potassium channels (K+ATP) on
pancreatic β-cells.
Meglitinides bind to ATP-dependent
potassium channels on β-cells and
increase insulin production in a similar
manner to sulfonylureas.
Thiazolidinedions (TZDs) are
insulin sensitizers that act
mainly on adipocytes and
muscle. They activate
peroxisone proliferator-
activated γ nuclear receptors
(PPARγ) that are ligand activated
transcription factors.
Biguanides affect insulin sensitivity, specifically
in muscle cells. Similar to TZDs, they do not
portend risk of hypoglycemia, except in cases
when they are used in combination with
sulfonylureas and insulin.
Non-peptidic small molecule drugs for insulin signaling pathway

4. 01
02
03
04
05
Peptide in
Diabetes
06
Amylin
Chromogranin A
Exendins
Gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP)
Ghrelin
Glucagon-Like Peptides (GLP-1 / GLP-2)

5. Amylin(20-29)
rat, human, cat, hamster
Amylin (8-37)
human, rat
Amylin (1-13) and Amylin (1-37)
Amylin
Amylin, or islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP), is a 37-
residue peptide hormone. It is cosecreted with insulin
from the pancreatic β-cells in the ratio of approximately
100:1. Amylin plays a role in glycemic regulation by
slowing gastric emptying and promoting satiety, thereby
preventing post-prandial spikes in blood glucose levels.

6. Pancreastatin (33-49), porcine
Pancreastatin, porcine
Pancreastatin (33-48) (human)
Chromogranin A
Chromogranin A is the precursor
to several functional peptides
including vasostatin-1, vasostatin-
2, pancreastatin, catestatin and
parastatin. These peptides
negatively modulate the
neuroendocrine function of the
releasing cell (autocrine) or
nearby cells (paracrine).
Chromogranin A induces and
promotes the generation of
secretory granules such as those
containing insulin in pancreatic
islet beta cells.
Pancreastatin [Tyr0], porcine

7. Exendin-4, Exendin-4 (3-39), Exendin-4 (1-8)
Exendin (10-39), Exendin (4-39), Exendin
(5-39), Exendin (7-39)
Exendins
Exendins are peptide hormones
isolated from an exocrine gland but
have endocrine actions. Exendins
stimulate insulin secretion in
response to rising blood glucose
levels, and modulate gastric
emptying to slow the entry of
ingested sugars into the bloodstream.
Exendin-3

8. Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide (6-30)
amide (human)
Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide (1-30),
porcine
GIP
GIP is a 42 amino acid hormone
that is produced by
enteroendocrine K-cells and
released into the circulation in
response to nutrient stimulation.
GIP stimulates insulin secretion
in a glucose-dependent manner
and are thus classified as
incretins.
Gastric inhibitory polypeptide

9. C-terminal Proghrelin Isoform Peptide,
mouse
[Des-octanoyl]-Ghrelin (human, rat)
Ghrelin
Ghrelin (human, rat, bovine)
Ghrelin inhibits glucose-stimulated
insulin secretion from beta cells in the
pancreatic islets. Ghrelin does this
indirectly by promoting local negative
feedback mediated by somatostatin
from pancreatic delta cells, which
selectively express the ghrelin receptor.

10. Glucagon, Glucagon (22-29), Glucagon (19-
29), Glucagon (1 - 18), Glucagon (1 - 29)
GLP-1 (7-37) Acetate, GLP - 1 (7 - 17) - Cys
GLP-1 and
GLP-2
Proglucagon contains the sequence of
two glucagon-like peptides, GLP-1 and
GLP-2, secreted from enteroendocrine
cells of the small and large intestine.
GLP-1 regulates blood glucose via
stimulation of glucose-dependent
insulin secretion, inhibition of gastric
emptying, and inhibition of glucagon
secretion.
Liraglutide, Lixisenatide, Albiglutide,
Exenatide, Semaglutide

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