Diabetes mellitus is a group of diseases characterized by high blood glucose levels due to defects in insulin production or action. The main types are type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes. Complications include stroke, heart attack, kidney disease, eye disease, and nerve damage. Type 1 diabetes results from destroyed insulin-producing cells leading to insulin dependence, while type 2 diabetes involves insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency. Gestational diabetes occurs in 3-5% of pregnancies in the US. Testing and diagnosis involves fasting plasma glucose tests and oral glucose tolerance tests. Treatment depends on the type of diabetes and may include insulin, oral medications that stimulate insulin production, increase insulin sensitivity, or slow starch digestion.

1. Diabetes Mellitus Overview and Treatments

9. Pancreatic Hormones and Insulin Receptor Agonists

10. The bulk of the pancreas is an exocrine gland secreting pancreatic fluid into the duodenum after a meal. Inside the pancreas are millions of clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans. The islets are endocrine tissue containing four types of cells. In order of abundance, they are: beta cells , which secrete insulin and amylin; alpha cells , which secrete glucagon; delta cells , which secrete somatostatin gamma cells , which secrete a polypeptide.

12. A chain B chain Beta cells have channels in their plasma membrane that serve as glucose detectors. Beta cells secrete insulin in response to a rising level of circulating glucose . Insulin is a small protein consisting of an A chain of 21 amino acids linked by two disulfide (S—S) bridges to a B chain of 30 amino acids.

15. Stage 1 I nsulin was extracted from the glands of cows and pigs. (1920s) Stage 2 Convert pig insulin into human insulin by removing the one amino acid that distinguishes them and replacing it with the human version . I nsulin drug evolution