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Requirements 1
Data Flow Diagram and Use
Cases
Requirements 2
Data Flow Modeling
 Widely used; focuses on functions
performed in the system
 Views a system as a network of data
transforms through which the data flows
 Uses data flow diagrams (DFDs) and
functional decomposition in modeling
 The SSAD methodology uses DFD to
organize information, and guide analysis
Requirements 3
Data flow diagrams
 A DFD shows flow of data through the
system
 Views system as transforming inputs to
outputs
 Transformation done through transforms
 DFD captures how transformation occurs
from input to output as data moves through
the transforms
 Not limited to software
Requirements 4
Data flow diagrams…
 DFD
 Transforms represented by named
circles/bubbles
 Bubbles connected by arrows on which
named data travels
 A rectangle represents a source or sink
and is originator/consumer of data (often
outside the system)
Requirements 5
DFD Example
Requirements 6
DFD Conventions
 External files shown as labeled straight lines
 Need for multiple data flows by a process
represented by * (means and)
 OR relationship represented by +
 All processes and arrows should be named
 Processes should represent transforms,
arrows should represent some data
Requirements 7
Data flow diagrams…
 Focus on what transforms happen , how
they are done is not important
 Usually major inputs/outputs shown,
minor are ignored in this modeling
 No loops , conditional thinking , …
 DFD is NOT a control chart, no
algorithmic design/thinking
 Sink/Source , external files
Requirements 8
Drawing a DFD
 If get stuck , reverse direction
 If control logic comes in , stop and restart
 Label each arrows and bubbles
 Make use of + & *
 Try drawing alternate DFDs
Leveled DFDs :
Requirements 9
Data Dictionary
 In a DFD arrows are labeled with data items
 Data dictionary defines data flows in a DFD
 Shows structure of data; structure becomes
more visible when exploding
 Can use regular expressions to express the
structure of data
Requirements 10
Data Dictionary Example
 For the timesheet DFD
Weekly_timesheet – employee_name + id +
[regular_hrs + overtime_hrs]*
Pay_rate = [hourly | daily | weekly] + dollar_amt
Employee_name = last + first + middle
Id = digit + digit + digit + digit
Requirements 11
DFD drawing – common errors
 Unlabeled data flows
 Missing data flows
 Extraneous data flows
 Consistency not maintained during
refinement
 Missing processes
 Too detailed or too abstract
 Contains some control information
Requirements 12
Structured Analysis Method
 Structured system analysis and design
(SSAD) – we will focus only on analysis
 Was used a lot when automating existing
manual systems
 Main steps
 Draw a context diagram
 Draw DFD of the existing system
 Draw DFD of the proposed system and identify the
man-machine boundary
Requirements 13
Context Diagram
 Views the entire system as a transform
and identifies the context
 Is a DFD with one transform (system),
with all inputs, outputs, sources, sinks
for the system identified
Requirements 14
Modeling the Proposed System
 No general rules for drawing the DFD of the
future system
 Use existing system understanding
 DFD should model the entire proposed system
- process may be automated or manual
 validate with the user
 Then establish man-machine boundary
 what processes will be automated and which
remains manual
 Show clearly interaction between automated
and manual processes
Requirements 15
Example – context diagram
Requirements 16
Example – DFD of existing sys
Requirements 17
Example – DFD of proposed system
Requirements 18
Characteristics of an SRS
 Correct
 Complete
 Unambiguous
 Consistent
 Verifiable
 Traceable
 Modifiable
 Ranked for importance and/or stability
Requirements 19
Characteristics…
 Correctness
 Each requirement accurately represents some
desired feature in the final system
 Completeness
 All desired features/characteristics specified
 Hardest to satisfy
 Completeness and correctness strongly related
 Unambiguous
 Each req has exactly one meaning
 Without this errors will creep in
 Important as natural languages often used
Requirements 20
Characteristics…
 Verifiability
 There must exist a cost effective way of checking if sw
satisfies requirements
 Consistent
 two requirements don’t contradict each other
 Traceable
 The origin of the req, and how the req relates to software
elements can be determined
 Ranked for importance/stability
 Needed for prioritizing in construction
 To reduce risks due to changing requirements
Requirements 21
Use Cases Approach
 Traditional approach for fn specs – specify
each function
 Use cases is a newer technique for specifying
behavior (functionality)
 I.e. focuses on functional specs only
 Though primarily for specification, can be
used in analysis and elicitation
 Can be used to specify business or org
behavior also, though we will focus on sw
 Well suited for interactive systems
Requirements 22
Use Cases Basics
 A use case captures a contract
between a user and system about
behavior
 Basically a textual form; diagrams are
mostly to support
 Also useful in requirements elicitation
as users like and understand the story
telling form and react to it easily
Requirements 23
Basics..
 Actor: a person or a system that interacts with the
proposed system to achieve a goal
 Eg. User of an ATM (goal: get money); data entry operator;
(goal: Perform transaction)
 Actor is a logical entity, so receiver and sender actors
are different (even if the same person)
 Actors can be people or systems
 Primary actor: The main actor who initiates a UC
 UC is to satisfy his goals
 The actual execution may be done by a system or another
person on behalf of the Primary actor
Requirements 24
Basics..
 A UC is a collection of many such
scenarios
 A scenario may employ other use cases
in a step
 I.e. a sub-goal of a UC goal may be
performed by another UC
 I.e. UCs can be organized hierarchically
Requirements 25
Basics…
 UCs specify functionality by describing
interactions between actors and system
 Focuses on external behavior
 UCs are primarily textual
 UC diagrams show UCs, actors, and
dependencies
 They provide an overview
 Story like description easy to understand by
both users and analysts
 They do not form the complete SRS, only the
functionality part
Requirements 26
Example – An auction site
 Use Case1: Put an item for auction
 Primary Actor: Seller
 Precondition: Seller has logged in
 Main Success Scenario:
 Seller posts an item (its category, description, picture,
etc.) for auction
 System shows past prices of similar items to seller
 System specifies the starting bid price and a date when
auction will close
 System accepts the item and posts it
 Exception Scenarios:

-- 2 a) There are no past items of this category
* System tells the seller this situation
Requirements 27
Example – auction site..
 Use Case2: Make a bid
 Primary Actor: Buyer
 Precondition: The buyer has logged in
 Main Success Scenario:
 Buyer searches or browses and selects some item
 System shows the rating of the seller, the starting bid, the
current bids, and the highest bid; asks buyer to make a bid
 Buyer specifies bid price, max bid price, and increment
 Systems accepts the bid; Blocks funds in bidders account
 System updates the bid price of other bidders where needed,
and updates the records for the item
Requirements 28
 Exception Scenarios:
 -- 3 a) The bid price is lower than the current
highest
* System informs the bidder and asks to rebid
 -- 4 a) The bidder does not have enough funds in
his account
* System cancels the bid, asks the user to get
more funds
Requirements 29
Example –auction site..
 Use Case3: Complete auction of an item
 Primary Actor: Auction System
 Precondition: The last date for bidding has been
reached
 Main Success Scenario:
 Select highest bidder; send email to selected bidder and seller
informing final bid price; send email to other bidders also
 Debit bidder’s account and credit seller’s account
 Transfer from seller’s account commission amount to
organization’s account
 Remove item from the site; update records
 Exception Scenarios: None
Requirements 30
Example – summary-level Use Case
 Use Case 0 : Auction an item
 Primary Actor: Auction system
 Scope: Auction conducting organization
 Precondition: None
 Main Success Scenario:
 Seller performs put an item for auction
 Various bidders make a bid
 On final date perform Complete the auction of
the item
 Get feed back from seller; get feedback from
buyer; update records
Requirements 31
Requirements with Use Cases
 UCs specify functional requirements
 Other req identified separately
 A complete SRS will contain the use
cases plus the other requirements
 Note – for system requirements it is
important to identify UCs for which the
system itself may be the actor
Requirements 32
Developing Use Cases
 UCs form a good medium for
brainstorming and discussions
 Hence can be used in elicitation and
problem analysis also
 UCs can be developed in a stepwise
refinement manner
 Many levels possible, but four naturally
emerge
Requirements 33
Requirements Validation
 Lot of room for misunderstanding
 Errors possible
 Expensive to fix req defects later
 Must try to remove most errors in SRS
 Most common errors
 Omission - 30%
 Inconsistency - 10-30%
 Incorrect fact - 10-30%
 Ambiguity - 5 -20%

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Data Flow Diagram and USe Case Diagram

  • 1. Requirements 1 Data Flow Diagram and Use Cases
  • 2. Requirements 2 Data Flow Modeling  Widely used; focuses on functions performed in the system  Views a system as a network of data transforms through which the data flows  Uses data flow diagrams (DFDs) and functional decomposition in modeling  The SSAD methodology uses DFD to organize information, and guide analysis
  • 3. Requirements 3 Data flow diagrams  A DFD shows flow of data through the system  Views system as transforming inputs to outputs  Transformation done through transforms  DFD captures how transformation occurs from input to output as data moves through the transforms  Not limited to software
  • 4. Requirements 4 Data flow diagrams…  DFD  Transforms represented by named circles/bubbles  Bubbles connected by arrows on which named data travels  A rectangle represents a source or sink and is originator/consumer of data (often outside the system)
  • 6. Requirements 6 DFD Conventions  External files shown as labeled straight lines  Need for multiple data flows by a process represented by * (means and)  OR relationship represented by +  All processes and arrows should be named  Processes should represent transforms, arrows should represent some data
  • 7. Requirements 7 Data flow diagrams…  Focus on what transforms happen , how they are done is not important  Usually major inputs/outputs shown, minor are ignored in this modeling  No loops , conditional thinking , …  DFD is NOT a control chart, no algorithmic design/thinking  Sink/Source , external files
  • 8. Requirements 8 Drawing a DFD  If get stuck , reverse direction  If control logic comes in , stop and restart  Label each arrows and bubbles  Make use of + & *  Try drawing alternate DFDs Leveled DFDs :
  • 9. Requirements 9 Data Dictionary  In a DFD arrows are labeled with data items  Data dictionary defines data flows in a DFD  Shows structure of data; structure becomes more visible when exploding  Can use regular expressions to express the structure of data
  • 10. Requirements 10 Data Dictionary Example  For the timesheet DFD Weekly_timesheet – employee_name + id + [regular_hrs + overtime_hrs]* Pay_rate = [hourly | daily | weekly] + dollar_amt Employee_name = last + first + middle Id = digit + digit + digit + digit
  • 11. Requirements 11 DFD drawing – common errors  Unlabeled data flows  Missing data flows  Extraneous data flows  Consistency not maintained during refinement  Missing processes  Too detailed or too abstract  Contains some control information
  • 12. Requirements 12 Structured Analysis Method  Structured system analysis and design (SSAD) – we will focus only on analysis  Was used a lot when automating existing manual systems  Main steps  Draw a context diagram  Draw DFD of the existing system  Draw DFD of the proposed system and identify the man-machine boundary
  • 13. Requirements 13 Context Diagram  Views the entire system as a transform and identifies the context  Is a DFD with one transform (system), with all inputs, outputs, sources, sinks for the system identified
  • 14. Requirements 14 Modeling the Proposed System  No general rules for drawing the DFD of the future system  Use existing system understanding  DFD should model the entire proposed system - process may be automated or manual  validate with the user  Then establish man-machine boundary  what processes will be automated and which remains manual  Show clearly interaction between automated and manual processes
  • 15. Requirements 15 Example – context diagram
  • 16. Requirements 16 Example – DFD of existing sys
  • 17. Requirements 17 Example – DFD of proposed system
  • 18. Requirements 18 Characteristics of an SRS  Correct  Complete  Unambiguous  Consistent  Verifiable  Traceable  Modifiable  Ranked for importance and/or stability
  • 19. Requirements 19 Characteristics…  Correctness  Each requirement accurately represents some desired feature in the final system  Completeness  All desired features/characteristics specified  Hardest to satisfy  Completeness and correctness strongly related  Unambiguous  Each req has exactly one meaning  Without this errors will creep in  Important as natural languages often used
  • 20. Requirements 20 Characteristics…  Verifiability  There must exist a cost effective way of checking if sw satisfies requirements  Consistent  two requirements don’t contradict each other  Traceable  The origin of the req, and how the req relates to software elements can be determined  Ranked for importance/stability  Needed for prioritizing in construction  To reduce risks due to changing requirements
  • 21. Requirements 21 Use Cases Approach  Traditional approach for fn specs – specify each function  Use cases is a newer technique for specifying behavior (functionality)  I.e. focuses on functional specs only  Though primarily for specification, can be used in analysis and elicitation  Can be used to specify business or org behavior also, though we will focus on sw  Well suited for interactive systems
  • 22. Requirements 22 Use Cases Basics  A use case captures a contract between a user and system about behavior  Basically a textual form; diagrams are mostly to support  Also useful in requirements elicitation as users like and understand the story telling form and react to it easily
  • 23. Requirements 23 Basics..  Actor: a person or a system that interacts with the proposed system to achieve a goal  Eg. User of an ATM (goal: get money); data entry operator; (goal: Perform transaction)  Actor is a logical entity, so receiver and sender actors are different (even if the same person)  Actors can be people or systems  Primary actor: The main actor who initiates a UC  UC is to satisfy his goals  The actual execution may be done by a system or another person on behalf of the Primary actor
  • 24. Requirements 24 Basics..  A UC is a collection of many such scenarios  A scenario may employ other use cases in a step  I.e. a sub-goal of a UC goal may be performed by another UC  I.e. UCs can be organized hierarchically
  • 25. Requirements 25 Basics…  UCs specify functionality by describing interactions between actors and system  Focuses on external behavior  UCs are primarily textual  UC diagrams show UCs, actors, and dependencies  They provide an overview  Story like description easy to understand by both users and analysts  They do not form the complete SRS, only the functionality part
  • 26. Requirements 26 Example – An auction site  Use Case1: Put an item for auction  Primary Actor: Seller  Precondition: Seller has logged in  Main Success Scenario:  Seller posts an item (its category, description, picture, etc.) for auction  System shows past prices of similar items to seller  System specifies the starting bid price and a date when auction will close  System accepts the item and posts it  Exception Scenarios:  -- 2 a) There are no past items of this category * System tells the seller this situation
  • 27. Requirements 27 Example – auction site..  Use Case2: Make a bid  Primary Actor: Buyer  Precondition: The buyer has logged in  Main Success Scenario:  Buyer searches or browses and selects some item  System shows the rating of the seller, the starting bid, the current bids, and the highest bid; asks buyer to make a bid  Buyer specifies bid price, max bid price, and increment  Systems accepts the bid; Blocks funds in bidders account  System updates the bid price of other bidders where needed, and updates the records for the item
  • 28. Requirements 28  Exception Scenarios:  -- 3 a) The bid price is lower than the current highest * System informs the bidder and asks to rebid  -- 4 a) The bidder does not have enough funds in his account * System cancels the bid, asks the user to get more funds
  • 29. Requirements 29 Example –auction site..  Use Case3: Complete auction of an item  Primary Actor: Auction System  Precondition: The last date for bidding has been reached  Main Success Scenario:  Select highest bidder; send email to selected bidder and seller informing final bid price; send email to other bidders also  Debit bidder’s account and credit seller’s account  Transfer from seller’s account commission amount to organization’s account  Remove item from the site; update records  Exception Scenarios: None
  • 30. Requirements 30 Example – summary-level Use Case  Use Case 0 : Auction an item  Primary Actor: Auction system  Scope: Auction conducting organization  Precondition: None  Main Success Scenario:  Seller performs put an item for auction  Various bidders make a bid  On final date perform Complete the auction of the item  Get feed back from seller; get feedback from buyer; update records
  • 31. Requirements 31 Requirements with Use Cases  UCs specify functional requirements  Other req identified separately  A complete SRS will contain the use cases plus the other requirements  Note – for system requirements it is important to identify UCs for which the system itself may be the actor
  • 32. Requirements 32 Developing Use Cases  UCs form a good medium for brainstorming and discussions  Hence can be used in elicitation and problem analysis also  UCs can be developed in a stepwise refinement manner  Many levels possible, but four naturally emerge
  • 33. Requirements 33 Requirements Validation  Lot of room for misunderstanding  Errors possible  Expensive to fix req defects later  Must try to remove most errors in SRS  Most common errors  Omission - 30%  Inconsistency - 10-30%  Incorrect fact - 10-30%  Ambiguity - 5 -20%