Countercurrent mechanism
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Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism where heat or chemicals are transferred between two flowing bodies moving in opposite directions, allowing for a maximum transfer. In the kidney, the countercurrent multiplier involves the reabsorption of sodium chloride along the Loop of Henle which adds to new sodium chloride, concentrating it in the medullary interstitium. Countercurrent exchange also occurs in the U-shaped vasa recta capillaries of the kidney, which helps concentrate solutes in the renal medulla through diffusion between blood and interstitial fluid flowing in opposite directions.
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Counter current mechanism
The countercurrent mechanism in the kidney involves the interaction between the flow of filtrate through the loop of Henle and the flow of blood through the vasa recta blood vessels. This allows the solute concentration in the loop of Henle to range from 300 to 1200 mOsm. Water permeability is always high in the proximal tubule, always low in the ascending loop of Henle, and can be high or low in the distal tubules depending on the presence of ADH. There is a transport maximum for substances actively reabsorbed or secreted, where the tubular load exceeds the transport capacity and the substance appears in urine. The vasa recta perform countercurrent exchange to recycle NaCl in the medulla and
Renal control of acid base balance
The kidneys control acid-base balance by excreting either acidic or basic urine. In acidosis, the kidneys reabsorb bicarbonate and produce new bicarbonate to reduce acid levels. In alkalosis, the kidneys fail to reabsorb all filtered bicarbonate, increasing excretion and lowering bicarbonate levels to return pH to normal. The kidneys regulate pH through secretion of hydrogen ions, reabsorption of bicarbonate, and production of new bicarbonate.
Counter current mechanism in kidney
The document discusses countercurrent exchange systems in various organs and tissues of the body including the kidney. It describes how the countercurrent multiplier system in the loop of Henle establishes a gradient that is maintained by the countercurrent exchanger system of the vasa recta, allowing the kidney to produce concentrated urine through the medullary countercurrent system. It also discusses how diuretics work by targeting different sites along the nephron to increase urine output.
Chemical control of respiration
The document summarizes the chemical control of respiration through respiratory chemoreceptors. There are three types of chemoreceptors: peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies that detect changes in arterial pCO2, pO2, and pH; central or medullary chemoreceptors located in the brainstem that are stimulated by increased hydrogen ion concentration in cerebrospinal fluid; and both peripheral and central chemoreceptors work together to maintain homeostasis and stimulate respiration in response to changes in oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion levels in order to regulate respiration.
Neural regulation of Respiration
This document discusses the neural regulation of respiration. It begins by outlining the respiratory centers located in the brainstem, including the dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group, pneumotaxic center, and apneustic center. These centers generate the rhythmic pattern of breathing and control the rate and depth of respiration. The document then describes various inputs that affect the respiratory centers, including peripheral chemoreceptors, lung stretch receptors, and irritant receptors. It concludes by explaining how disrupting different parts of the respiratory control system, such as through brainstem transections or anesthesia overdose, can impact breathing patterns and potentially cause respiratory arrest.
AMMONIA METABOLISM
Ammonia is produced during amino acid metabolism and transported to the liver via glutamine and alanine. Glutamine acts as an ammonia storage molecule that is freely diffusible between tissues. High blood ammonia can cause neurological issues by disrupting the citric acid cycle. Hyperammonemia can be treated by trapping ammonia with drugs like sodium benzoate to remove it from the body.
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
This document discusses glomerular filtration and the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). It defines glomerular filtration as the process where plasma filters through the glomerular capillaries into Bowman's capsule, the first step in urine formation. The GFR is the rate at which plasma is filtered and is an important measurement of kidney function. Normal GFR is about 125 mL/min. The kidneys filter the plasma around 60 times per day. Renal blood flow to the kidneys is high at around 1200 mL/min and is regulated by the afferent and efferent arterioles. Glomerular filtration is governed by the filtration coefficient and Starling forces of hydrostatic and oncotic pressures
JUXTA GLOMERULAR apparatus
The document summarizes the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) and tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism. The JGA is located near the glomerulus and is formed by macula densa cells, extraglomerular mesangial cells, and juxtaglomerular cells. The primary function of the JGA is secretion of hormones like renin and prostaglandins. The tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism regulates glomerular filtration rate through detection of NaCl concentration by the macula densa cells, which signals the release of adenosine to constrict or dilate the afferent arteriole accordingly.
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Counter current mechanism
The countercurrent mechanism in the kidney involves the interaction between the flow of filtrate through the loop of Henle and the flow of blood through the vasa recta blood vessels. This allows the solute concentration in the loop of Henle to range from 300 to 1200 mOsm. Water permeability is always high in the proximal tubule, always low in the ascending loop of Henle, and can be high or low in the distal tubules depending on the presence of ADH. There is a transport maximum for substances actively reabsorbed or secreted, where the tubular load exceeds the transport capacity and the substance appears in urine. The vasa recta perform countercurrent exchange to recycle NaCl in the medulla and
Renal control of acid base balance
The kidneys control acid-base balance by excreting either acidic or basic urine. In acidosis, the kidneys reabsorb bicarbonate and produce new bicarbonate to reduce acid levels. In alkalosis, the kidneys fail to reabsorb all filtered bicarbonate, increasing excretion and lowering bicarbonate levels to return pH to normal. The kidneys regulate pH through secretion of hydrogen ions, reabsorption of bicarbonate, and production of new bicarbonate.
Counter current mechanism in kidney
The document discusses countercurrent exchange systems in various organs and tissues of the body including the kidney. It describes how the countercurrent multiplier system in the loop of Henle establishes a gradient that is maintained by the countercurrent exchanger system of the vasa recta, allowing the kidney to produce concentrated urine through the medullary countercurrent system. It also discusses how diuretics work by targeting different sites along the nephron to increase urine output.
Chemical control of respiration
The document summarizes the chemical control of respiration through respiratory chemoreceptors. There are three types of chemoreceptors: peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies that detect changes in arterial pCO2, pO2, and pH; central or medullary chemoreceptors located in the brainstem that are stimulated by increased hydrogen ion concentration in cerebrospinal fluid; and both peripheral and central chemoreceptors work together to maintain homeostasis and stimulate respiration in response to changes in oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion levels in order to regulate respiration.
Neural regulation of Respiration
This document discusses the neural regulation of respiration. It begins by outlining the respiratory centers located in the brainstem, including the dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group, pneumotaxic center, and apneustic center. These centers generate the rhythmic pattern of breathing and control the rate and depth of respiration. The document then describes various inputs that affect the respiratory centers, including peripheral chemoreceptors, lung stretch receptors, and irritant receptors. It concludes by explaining how disrupting different parts of the respiratory control system, such as through brainstem transections or anesthesia overdose, can impact breathing patterns and potentially cause respiratory arrest.
AMMONIA METABOLISM
Ammonia is produced during amino acid metabolism and transported to the liver via glutamine and alanine. Glutamine acts as an ammonia storage molecule that is freely diffusible between tissues. High blood ammonia can cause neurological issues by disrupting the citric acid cycle. Hyperammonemia can be treated by trapping ammonia with drugs like sodium benzoate to remove it from the body.
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
This document discusses glomerular filtration and the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). It defines glomerular filtration as the process where plasma filters through the glomerular capillaries into Bowman's capsule, the first step in urine formation. The GFR is the rate at which plasma is filtered and is an important measurement of kidney function. Normal GFR is about 125 mL/min. The kidneys filter the plasma around 60 times per day. Renal blood flow to the kidneys is high at around 1200 mL/min and is regulated by the afferent and efferent arterioles. Glomerular filtration is governed by the filtration coefficient and Starling forces of hydrostatic and oncotic pressures
JUXTA GLOMERULAR apparatus
The document summarizes the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) and tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism. The JGA is located near the glomerulus and is formed by macula densa cells, extraglomerular mesangial cells, and juxtaglomerular cells. The primary function of the JGA is secretion of hormones like renin and prostaglandins. The tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism regulates glomerular filtration rate through detection of NaCl concentration by the macula densa cells, which signals the release of adenosine to constrict or dilate the afferent arteriole accordingly.
Regulation of respiration
This document discusses the two main mechanisms that control respiration: the neural and chemical mechanisms. It describes in detail the various centers in the brainstem that control respiration, including the dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group, pneumotaxic center, and apneustic center. It also discusses the voluntary, automatic, and reflex control of respiration, including various reflexes like the Hering-Breuer reflex. Other factors that can affect respiration like sleep and receptors outside the respiratory system are also summarized.
7) regulation of respiration
lecture 7: every system in our body should be controlled by nervous system, certain chemical in the blood also alter the respiratory cycle.
TRANPORT OF OXYGEN
Dr. Nilesh Kate's document discusses oxygen transport. It begins by outlining the objectives of oxygen uptake in the lungs, transport in blood, and release in tissues. It then covers the introduction, uptake of oxygen by pulmonary blood due to the concentration gradient between the alveoli and arteries. Oxygen is transported in arterial blood both dissolved and bound to hemoglobin. The sigmoid shaped oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve allows for efficient loading and unloading of oxygen in tissues. Shifts in this curve are also discussed. Myoglobin assists with oxygen storage in muscle tissue.
Regulation of respiration
The document summarizes the regulation of respiration through nervous and chemical mechanisms. The nervous mechanism involves respiratory centers in the medulla and pons that receive sensory information and control respiratory muscles. The chemical mechanism involves chemoreceptors that detect changes in blood oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion levels. Central chemoreceptors in the brainstem are sensitive to increased carbon dioxide levels, while peripheral chemoreceptors respond to decreased oxygen levels. Together the nervous and chemical mechanisms work to regulate breathing and maintain appropriate gas exchange.
Urine concentration
The kidney can concentrate urine by continuing to excrete solutes while reabsorbing more water, producing urine 4-5 times more concentrated than plasma. This ability is essential for terrestrial mammals to survive on land. The countercurrent mechanism in the loops of Henle and vasa recta allows solutes like urea to accumulate in the renal medulla, establishing a high osmotic gradient for water reabsorption. When ADH increases collecting duct permeability, this gradient enables production of highly concentrated urine, minimizing water loss and fluid intake needs.
Mechanism of formation of urine
Mechanism of Formation of Urine involves 4 key processes:
1. Glomerular filtration where plasma is filtered in the nephrons at a normal rate of 125 ml/min. Approximately 178 liters/day are reabsorbed in the renal tubules and only 1-2 liters/day are excreted as urine.
2. Tubular reabsorption where approximately 99% of the filtered load is reabsorbed, mainly through active transport of sodium in the proximal convoluted tubule.
3. Tubular secretion where certain substances like protons and drugs are actively secreted into the tubular fluid.
4. Concentration and acidification of urine where urine becomes concentrated through
Counter current mechanism
The countercurrent mechanism in the kidney produces a hyperosmotic renal medullary interstitium through three key processes: 1) the countercurrent multiplier effect of the thick ascending loop of Henle which repetitively reabsorbs sodium chloride, 2) active transport of ions from the collecting ducts into the medullary interstitium, and 3) facilitated diffusion of urea from the inner medullary collecting ducts into the medullary interstitium. This hyperosmotic interstitium is maintained by the countercurrent exchange function of the vasa recta blood vessels.
Capillary circulation
The document discusses capillary circulation and microcirculation. It covers the structure of capillaries including their thin endothelial cell walls allowing for exchange of nutrients, wastes, and fluid. It describes the Starling forces that govern fluid filtration and exchange between blood and tissues, including capillary pressure, plasma and interstitial fluid oncotic pressures, and other factors. It also discusses edema, the accumulation of excess fluid in tissues, which can occur intracellularly or extracellularly due to various causes that impact capillary permeability or lymph flow.
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood (1)
This document summarizes oxygen and carbon dioxide transport in the blood and tissues. It discusses how:
- Oxygen is carried bound to hemoglobin and dissolved in plasma, allowing blood to carry 30-100x more oxygen than if dissolved alone. Carbon dioxide also combines with substances to increase its transport 15-20x.
- Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary blood and from arterial blood into tissues, while carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.
- Hemoglobin increases oxygen carrying capacity of blood by reversibly binding oxygen. Factors like CO2 levels and temperature can shift the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
- In tissues, oxygen diffuses from capillaries into
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is formed in the brain ventricles and circulates around the brain and spinal cord. It is produced at a rate of around 500-600 ml per day, primarily by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles. CSF is absorbed into the venous blood through arachnoid villi and lymphatic vessels. It acts as a cushion and protects the brain from mechanical injury. CSF also helps remove waste from the brain and maintain homeostasis. Abnormal CSF accumulation can cause hydrocephalus, while lumbar puncture allows sampling of CSF for analysis.
Pulmonary Ventilation (physiology)
Pulmonary ventilation involves the movement of air into and out of the alveoli through the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. Muscle activity changes the volume of the thoracic cavity, altering intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures to draw air into the lungs during inhalation and expel it during exhalation. Airflow is affected by airway resistance, which can change based on bronchiole diameter, and lung compliance, maintained by elastic tissues and surfactants. Alveolar ventilation determines the renewal of air in the gas exchange areas to influence oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations.
BIOCHEMISTRY OF PANCREATIC JUICE
The pancreatic juice contains water and electrolytes secreted by pancreatic duct cells as well as digestive enzymes secreted by acinar cells. The enzymes include proteases like trypsinogen, lipase for fat digestion, and amylase for carbohydrate digestion. Secretin is released when chyme enters the duodenum and stimulates bicarbonate secretion to neutralize acid. Cholecystokinin stimulates enzyme secretion from acinar cells to digest proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. Together, secretin and cholecystokinin regulate the exocrine pancreatic secretion in response to food in the duodenum.
Tubular reabsorption (The Guyton and Hall physiology)
It is the second step of urine formation.
It is defined as;
“ The process by which water and other substances are transported by renal tubules back to blood is called Tubular Reabsorption”.
Tubular reabsorption is highly selective.
Some substances like glucose and amino acids are completely absorbed from tubules. So, the urinary excretion is zero.
Ions such as Na+, Cl-, HCO3- are highly absorbed but rate of absorption and excretion varies, according to body needs.
Materials Not Reabsorbed
Nitrogenous waste products
Urea
Uric acid
Creatinine
Excess water
RENAL PHYSIOLOGY REVISION NOTES
LAST MINUTE REVISION NOTES OF PHYSIOLOGY BASED ON LECTURE NOTES AND HIGH YIELD TOPICS
BASED ON PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
IMAGE BASED QUESTIONS
Respiratory #2, Gas Transport - Physiology
1) Gas exchange occurs at the lungs between blood and air, and at tissues between blood and tissues, via simple diffusion down partial pressure gradients.
2) The alveolar-capillary membrane is where oxygen diffuses from alveoli into blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli. Factors like membrane thickness, surface area, and gas solubility and molecular weight determine diffusion rates.
3) Oxygen is transported in blood bound to hemoglobin (98.5%) and dissolved (1.5%). The oxygen content is the total oxygen carried in blood, while the oxygen carrying capacity is the maximum amount of oxygen hemoglobin can carry when saturated. Percent hemoglobin saturation indicates how
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
This document discusses the regulation of respiration. It covers the neural, automatic, and chemical control mechanisms that regulate breathing. The key points are:
1) Respiration is regulated by medullary and pontine respiratory centers in the brainstem that generate the breathing rhythm and control rate and depth.
2) Breathing is also automatically controlled and can occur without conscious effort. It is further modulated by inputs from chemoreceptors sensitive to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels in the blood.
3) Peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies detect changes in blood gases and signal the respiratory centers to adjust breathing accordingly. Central chemoreceptors in the brainstem are
TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE
Dr. Nilesh Kate's document discusses the transport of carbon dioxide in the body. It describes how CO2 moves from cells to blood through diffusion down a partial pressure gradient, and is transported in the blood in three forms: dissolved, bicarbonate, and carbamino compounds. The document outlines the roles of hemoglobin, oxygen levels, and temperature in facilitating CO2 transport from tissues to the lungs, where it diffuses into the alveolar air and is exhaled. Key factors like pH regulation and the respiratory quotient are also briefly covered.
MECHANISM OF CONCENTRATION OF URINE
The document discusses the mechanism of urine concentration in the kidney through countercurrent flow. It explains how the loop of Henle acts as a countercurrent multiplier and the vasa recta acts as a countercurrent exchanger to generate and maintain an osmotic gradient in the renal medulla. This gradient allows water to be reabsorbed in the collecting ducts under the influence of ADH, resulting in concentrated urine when water intake is low. The kidney thus regulates urine concentration through countercurrent mechanisms to maintain water homeostasis.
THE COUNTERCURRENT.pptx
The countercurrent mechanism involves the loops of Henle and vasa recta working together to create and maintain an osmotic gradient in the renal medulla. The loops of Henle function as countercurrent multipliers, actively transporting ions from the thick ascending limb to increase the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid. The vasa recta parallel the loops of Henle and function as countercurrent exchangers, rapidly exchanging fluids between ascending and descending limbs to minimize washing out solutes and preserve the osmotic gradient as blood flows through the medulla. This countercurrent system allows urine to be concentrated as water is reabsorbed along the nephron according to the osmotic gradient in the
GLYCINE METABOLISM
Glycine is a non-essential amino acid that is involved in many biochemical processes. It can be synthesized from serine, threonine, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and glyoxylate. Glycine is important for the synthesis of heme, purines, creatine, glutathione, bile acids, and hippuric acid. It is metabolized through the glycine cleavage system or converted to serine and then gluconeogenic precursors. Elevated glycine levels can cause neurological issues while deficiencies are associated with hyperoxaluria and kidney stone formation.
Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism occurring in nature and mimic.pdf
Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism occurring in nature and mimicked in industry and
engineering, in which there is a crossover of some property, usually heat or some component,
between two flowing bodies flowing in opposite directions to each other. The flowing bodies can
be liquids, gases, or even solid powders, or any combination of those. For example, in a
distillation column, the vapors bubble up through the downward flowing liquid while exchanging
both heat and mass.The maximum amount of heat or mass transfer that can be obtained is higher
with countercurrent than co-current (parallel) exchange because countercurrent maintains a
slowly declining difference or gradient (usually temperature or concentration difference). In
cocurrent exchange the initial gradient is higher but falls off quickly, leading to wasted potential.
Definition of COCURRENT involving flow of materials in the same direction
Blood can flow in one of 3 ways relative to the flow of the medium:
(1) Same Direction = Concurrent
(2) Opposite Direction = Countercurrent
(3) At an angle = Crosscurrent
Concurrent Flow PO2 of the blood to equilibrate with the PO2 of the respiratory medium.
Countercurrent Flow PO2 of blood leaving the gas exchange surface can approach that of the
incoming medium.
Crosscurrent Flow PO2 is usually higher than what would be seen for concurrent, but lower than
countercurrent.
Solution
Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism occurring in nature and mimicked in industry and
engineering, in which there is a crossover of some property, usually heat or some component,
between two flowing bodies flowing in opposite directions to each other. The flowing bodies can
be liquids, gases, or even solid powders, or any combination of those. For example, in a
distillation column, the vapors bubble up through the downward flowing liquid while exchanging
both heat and mass.The maximum amount of heat or mass transfer that can be obtained is higher
with countercurrent than co-current (parallel) exchange because countercurrent maintains a
slowly declining difference or gradient (usually temperature or concentration difference). In
cocurrent exchange the initial gradient is higher but falls off quickly, leading to wasted potential.
Definition of COCURRENT involving flow of materials in the same direction
Blood can flow in one of 3 ways relative to the flow of the medium:
(1) Same Direction = Concurrent
(2) Opposite Direction = Countercurrent
(3) At an angle = Crosscurrent
Concurrent Flow PO2 of the blood to equilibrate with the PO2 of the respiratory medium.
Countercurrent Flow PO2 of blood leaving the gas exchange surface can approach that of the
incoming medium.
Crosscurrent Flow PO2 is usually higher than what would be seen for concurrent, but lower than
countercurrent..
Mention the major difference in the physical phenomena occurring rel.pdf
Mention the major difference in the physical phenomena occurring related to heat transfer in
external flow as opposed to internal flow.
Solution
Heat transfer is the exchange of thermal energy between physical systems. The rate ofheat
transfer is dependent on the temperatures of the systems and the properties of the intervening
medium through which the heat is transferred. The three fundamental modes of heat transfer are
conduction, convection and radiation.
On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and
molecules interact with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy
(heat) to these neighboring particles. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when
adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to another.
Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects
in thermal contact. Fluids—especially gases—are less conductive.Thermal contact conductance
is the study of heat conduction between solid bodies in contact.
Convection
The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by
buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume),
thus influencing its own transfer. The latter process is often called \"natural convection\". All
convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. Another form of convection is
forced convection. In this case the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump, fan or other
mechanical means.
Convective heat transfer, or convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the
movement of fluids, a process that is essentially the transfer of heat via mass transfer. Bulk
motion of fluid enhances heat transfer in many physical situations, such as (for example)
between a solid surface and the fluid. Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in
liquids and gases.
In a body of fluid that is heated from underneath its container, conduction and convection can be
considered to compete for dominance. If heat conduction is too great, fluid moving down by
convection is heated by conduction so fast that its downward movement will be stopped due to
its buoyancy, while fluid moving up by convection is cooled by conduction so fast that its
driving buoyancy will diminish. On the other hand, if heat conduction is very low, a large
temperature gradient may be formed and convection might be very strong..
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Regulation of respiration
This document discusses the two main mechanisms that control respiration: the neural and chemical mechanisms. It describes in detail the various centers in the brainstem that control respiration, including the dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group, pneumotaxic center, and apneustic center. It also discusses the voluntary, automatic, and reflex control of respiration, including various reflexes like the Hering-Breuer reflex. Other factors that can affect respiration like sleep and receptors outside the respiratory system are also summarized.
7) regulation of respiration
lecture 7: every system in our body should be controlled by nervous system, certain chemical in the blood also alter the respiratory cycle.
TRANPORT OF OXYGEN
Dr. Nilesh Kate's document discusses oxygen transport. It begins by outlining the objectives of oxygen uptake in the lungs, transport in blood, and release in tissues. It then covers the introduction, uptake of oxygen by pulmonary blood due to the concentration gradient between the alveoli and arteries. Oxygen is transported in arterial blood both dissolved and bound to hemoglobin. The sigmoid shaped oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve allows for efficient loading and unloading of oxygen in tissues. Shifts in this curve are also discussed. Myoglobin assists with oxygen storage in muscle tissue.
Regulation of respiration
The document summarizes the regulation of respiration through nervous and chemical mechanisms. The nervous mechanism involves respiratory centers in the medulla and pons that receive sensory information and control respiratory muscles. The chemical mechanism involves chemoreceptors that detect changes in blood oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion levels. Central chemoreceptors in the brainstem are sensitive to increased carbon dioxide levels, while peripheral chemoreceptors respond to decreased oxygen levels. Together the nervous and chemical mechanisms work to regulate breathing and maintain appropriate gas exchange.
Urine concentration
The kidney can concentrate urine by continuing to excrete solutes while reabsorbing more water, producing urine 4-5 times more concentrated than plasma. This ability is essential for terrestrial mammals to survive on land. The countercurrent mechanism in the loops of Henle and vasa recta allows solutes like urea to accumulate in the renal medulla, establishing a high osmotic gradient for water reabsorption. When ADH increases collecting duct permeability, this gradient enables production of highly concentrated urine, minimizing water loss and fluid intake needs.
Mechanism of formation of urine
Mechanism of Formation of Urine involves 4 key processes:
1. Glomerular filtration where plasma is filtered in the nephrons at a normal rate of 125 ml/min. Approximately 178 liters/day are reabsorbed in the renal tubules and only 1-2 liters/day are excreted as urine.
2. Tubular reabsorption where approximately 99% of the filtered load is reabsorbed, mainly through active transport of sodium in the proximal convoluted tubule.
3. Tubular secretion where certain substances like protons and drugs are actively secreted into the tubular fluid.
4. Concentration and acidification of urine where urine becomes concentrated through
Counter current mechanism
The countercurrent mechanism in the kidney produces a hyperosmotic renal medullary interstitium through three key processes: 1) the countercurrent multiplier effect of the thick ascending loop of Henle which repetitively reabsorbs sodium chloride, 2) active transport of ions from the collecting ducts into the medullary interstitium, and 3) facilitated diffusion of urea from the inner medullary collecting ducts into the medullary interstitium. This hyperosmotic interstitium is maintained by the countercurrent exchange function of the vasa recta blood vessels.
Capillary circulation
The document discusses capillary circulation and microcirculation. It covers the structure of capillaries including their thin endothelial cell walls allowing for exchange of nutrients, wastes, and fluid. It describes the Starling forces that govern fluid filtration and exchange between blood and tissues, including capillary pressure, plasma and interstitial fluid oncotic pressures, and other factors. It also discusses edema, the accumulation of excess fluid in tissues, which can occur intracellularly or extracellularly due to various causes that impact capillary permeability or lymph flow.
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood (1)
This document summarizes oxygen and carbon dioxide transport in the blood and tissues. It discusses how:
- Oxygen is carried bound to hemoglobin and dissolved in plasma, allowing blood to carry 30-100x more oxygen than if dissolved alone. Carbon dioxide also combines with substances to increase its transport 15-20x.
- Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary blood and from arterial blood into tissues, while carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.
- Hemoglobin increases oxygen carrying capacity of blood by reversibly binding oxygen. Factors like CO2 levels and temperature can shift the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
- In tissues, oxygen diffuses from capillaries into
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is formed in the brain ventricles and circulates around the brain and spinal cord. It is produced at a rate of around 500-600 ml per day, primarily by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles. CSF is absorbed into the venous blood through arachnoid villi and lymphatic vessels. It acts as a cushion and protects the brain from mechanical injury. CSF also helps remove waste from the brain and maintain homeostasis. Abnormal CSF accumulation can cause hydrocephalus, while lumbar puncture allows sampling of CSF for analysis.
Pulmonary Ventilation (physiology)
Pulmonary ventilation involves the movement of air into and out of the alveoli through the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. Muscle activity changes the volume of the thoracic cavity, altering intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures to draw air into the lungs during inhalation and expel it during exhalation. Airflow is affected by airway resistance, which can change based on bronchiole diameter, and lung compliance, maintained by elastic tissues and surfactants. Alveolar ventilation determines the renewal of air in the gas exchange areas to influence oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations.
BIOCHEMISTRY OF PANCREATIC JUICE
The pancreatic juice contains water and electrolytes secreted by pancreatic duct cells as well as digestive enzymes secreted by acinar cells. The enzymes include proteases like trypsinogen, lipase for fat digestion, and amylase for carbohydrate digestion. Secretin is released when chyme enters the duodenum and stimulates bicarbonate secretion to neutralize acid. Cholecystokinin stimulates enzyme secretion from acinar cells to digest proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. Together, secretin and cholecystokinin regulate the exocrine pancreatic secretion in response to food in the duodenum.
Tubular reabsorption (The Guyton and Hall physiology)
It is the second step of urine formation.
It is defined as;
“ The process by which water and other substances are transported by renal tubules back to blood is called Tubular Reabsorption”.
Tubular reabsorption is highly selective.
Some substances like glucose and amino acids are completely absorbed from tubules. So, the urinary excretion is zero.
Ions such as Na+, Cl-, HCO3- are highly absorbed but rate of absorption and excretion varies, according to body needs.
Materials Not Reabsorbed
Nitrogenous waste products
Urea
Uric acid
Creatinine
Excess water
RENAL PHYSIOLOGY REVISION NOTES
LAST MINUTE REVISION NOTES OF PHYSIOLOGY BASED ON LECTURE NOTES AND HIGH YIELD TOPICS
BASED ON PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
IMAGE BASED QUESTIONS
Respiratory #2, Gas Transport - Physiology
1) Gas exchange occurs at the lungs between blood and air, and at tissues between blood and tissues, via simple diffusion down partial pressure gradients.
2) The alveolar-capillary membrane is where oxygen diffuses from alveoli into blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli. Factors like membrane thickness, surface area, and gas solubility and molecular weight determine diffusion rates.
3) Oxygen is transported in blood bound to hemoglobin (98.5%) and dissolved (1.5%). The oxygen content is the total oxygen carried in blood, while the oxygen carrying capacity is the maximum amount of oxygen hemoglobin can carry when saturated. Percent hemoglobin saturation indicates how
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
This document discusses the regulation of respiration. It covers the neural, automatic, and chemical control mechanisms that regulate breathing. The key points are:
1) Respiration is regulated by medullary and pontine respiratory centers in the brainstem that generate the breathing rhythm and control rate and depth.
2) Breathing is also automatically controlled and can occur without conscious effort. It is further modulated by inputs from chemoreceptors sensitive to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels in the blood.
3) Peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies detect changes in blood gases and signal the respiratory centers to adjust breathing accordingly. Central chemoreceptors in the brainstem are
TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE
Dr. Nilesh Kate's document discusses the transport of carbon dioxide in the body. It describes how CO2 moves from cells to blood through diffusion down a partial pressure gradient, and is transported in the blood in three forms: dissolved, bicarbonate, and carbamino compounds. The document outlines the roles of hemoglobin, oxygen levels, and temperature in facilitating CO2 transport from tissues to the lungs, where it diffuses into the alveolar air and is exhaled. Key factors like pH regulation and the respiratory quotient are also briefly covered.
MECHANISM OF CONCENTRATION OF URINE
The document discusses the mechanism of urine concentration in the kidney through countercurrent flow. It explains how the loop of Henle acts as a countercurrent multiplier and the vasa recta acts as a countercurrent exchanger to generate and maintain an osmotic gradient in the renal medulla. This gradient allows water to be reabsorbed in the collecting ducts under the influence of ADH, resulting in concentrated urine when water intake is low. The kidney thus regulates urine concentration through countercurrent mechanisms to maintain water homeostasis.
THE COUNTERCURRENT.pptx
The countercurrent mechanism involves the loops of Henle and vasa recta working together to create and maintain an osmotic gradient in the renal medulla. The loops of Henle function as countercurrent multipliers, actively transporting ions from the thick ascending limb to increase the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid. The vasa recta parallel the loops of Henle and function as countercurrent exchangers, rapidly exchanging fluids between ascending and descending limbs to minimize washing out solutes and preserve the osmotic gradient as blood flows through the medulla. This countercurrent system allows urine to be concentrated as water is reabsorbed along the nephron according to the osmotic gradient in the
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Similar to Countercurrent mechanism
Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism occurring in nature and mimic.pdf
Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism occurring in nature and mimicked in industry and
engineering, in which there is a crossover of some property, usually heat or some component,
between two flowing bodies flowing in opposite directions to each other. The flowing bodies can
be liquids, gases, or even solid powders, or any combination of those. For example, in a
distillation column, the vapors bubble up through the downward flowing liquid while exchanging
both heat and mass.The maximum amount of heat or mass transfer that can be obtained is higher
with countercurrent than co-current (parallel) exchange because countercurrent maintains a
slowly declining difference or gradient (usually temperature or concentration difference). In
cocurrent exchange the initial gradient is higher but falls off quickly, leading to wasted potential.
Definition of COCURRENT involving flow of materials in the same direction
Blood can flow in one of 3 ways relative to the flow of the medium:
(1) Same Direction = Concurrent
(2) Opposite Direction = Countercurrent
(3) At an angle = Crosscurrent
Concurrent Flow PO2 of the blood to equilibrate with the PO2 of the respiratory medium.
Countercurrent Flow PO2 of blood leaving the gas exchange surface can approach that of the
incoming medium.
Crosscurrent Flow PO2 is usually higher than what would be seen for concurrent, but lower than
countercurrent.
Solution
Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism occurring in nature and mimicked in industry and
engineering, in which there is a crossover of some property, usually heat or some component,
between two flowing bodies flowing in opposite directions to each other. The flowing bodies can
be liquids, gases, or even solid powders, or any combination of those. For example, in a
distillation column, the vapors bubble up through the downward flowing liquid while exchanging
both heat and mass.The maximum amount of heat or mass transfer that can be obtained is higher
with countercurrent than co-current (parallel) exchange because countercurrent maintains a
slowly declining difference or gradient (usually temperature or concentration difference). In
cocurrent exchange the initial gradient is higher but falls off quickly, leading to wasted potential.
Definition of COCURRENT involving flow of materials in the same direction
Blood can flow in one of 3 ways relative to the flow of the medium:
(1) Same Direction = Concurrent
(2) Opposite Direction = Countercurrent
(3) At an angle = Crosscurrent
Concurrent Flow PO2 of the blood to equilibrate with the PO2 of the respiratory medium.
Countercurrent Flow PO2 of blood leaving the gas exchange surface can approach that of the
incoming medium.
Crosscurrent Flow PO2 is usually higher than what would be seen for concurrent, but lower than
countercurrent..
Mention the major difference in the physical phenomena occurring rel.pdf
Mention the major difference in the physical phenomena occurring related to heat transfer in
external flow as opposed to internal flow.
Solution
Heat transfer is the exchange of thermal energy between physical systems. The rate ofheat
transfer is dependent on the temperatures of the systems and the properties of the intervening
medium through which the heat is transferred. The three fundamental modes of heat transfer are
conduction, convection and radiation.
On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and
molecules interact with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy
(heat) to these neighboring particles. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when
adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to another.
Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects
in thermal contact. Fluids—especially gases—are less conductive.Thermal contact conductance
is the study of heat conduction between solid bodies in contact.
Convection
The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by
buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume),
thus influencing its own transfer. The latter process is often called \"natural convection\". All
convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. Another form of convection is
forced convection. In this case the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump, fan or other
mechanical means.
Convective heat transfer, or convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the
movement of fluids, a process that is essentially the transfer of heat via mass transfer. Bulk
motion of fluid enhances heat transfer in many physical situations, such as (for example)
between a solid surface and the fluid. Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in
liquids and gases.
In a body of fluid that is heated from underneath its container, conduction and convection can be
considered to compete for dominance. If heat conduction is too great, fluid moving down by
convection is heated by conduction so fast that its downward movement will be stopped due to
its buoyancy, while fluid moving up by convection is cooled by conduction so fast that its
driving buoyancy will diminish. On the other hand, if heat conduction is very low, a large
temperature gradient may be formed and convection might be very strong..
Heat transfer
1. Heat transfer is the process of transfer of heat from a high temperature system to a low temperature system, and can occur through three modes: conduction, convection, and radiation.
2. There are different types of heat transfer based on whether convection occurs naturally via fluid currents or is forced through external means like pumps. Key applications of heat transfer include evaporation, distillation, drying, and sterilization.
3. The rate of heat transfer depends on factors like temperature difference, surface area, thickness, and the thermal conductivity or heat transfer coefficients of materials. Mechanisms like conduction follow Fourier's Law while convection involves heat transfer through fluid layers and stagnant films at surfaces.
Fluid flow, heat transfer & mass transfer
Fluid flow, Heat transfer & Mass transfer is a course that covers three topics:
1. Fluid flow can be laminar or turbulent, depending on factors like viscosity and velocity. Laminar flow occurs in layers while turbulent flow is disorganized.
2. Heat transfer occurs through conduction, convection, or radiation. Conduction involves energy transfer through direct contact. Convection involves energy transfer within a fluid through mixing. Radiation involves energy transfer through electromagnetic waves.
3. Understanding these topics is important for applications like manufacturing pharmaceuticals, administering drugs, and designing systems like cooling units.
Types of fluid flow
Report on Types of fluid flow
fluid dynamics
Introduction
In physics, fluid flow has all kinds of aspects: steady or unsteady, compressible or incompressible, viscous or non-viscous, and rotational or irrotational to name a few. Some of these characteristics reflect properties of the liquid itself, and others focus on how the fluid is moving. Note that fluid flow can get very complex when it becomes turbulent. Physicists haven’t developed any elegant equations to describe turbulence because how turbulence works depends on the individual system whether you have water cascading through a pipe or air streaming out of a jet engine. Usually, you have to resort to computers to handle problems that involve fluid turbulence. Types of fluid flow:
Aerodynamic force
Cavitation
Compressible flow
Couette flow
Free molecular flow
Incompressible flow
introduction-to-convection-part-i1.pdf
Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of fluids such as gases and liquids. When a fluid is heated, its particles gain energy and spread out, causing the fluid to become less dense. Cooler, more dense fluids then sink below the warmer, less dense fluids, setting up convection currents that transfer heat through the fluid. Convection occurs through both natural convection, driven by density differences in the fluid, and forced convection, where an external force like a fan drives the fluid flow. The convection heat transfer coefficient depends on factors like the fluid properties, flow characteristics, surface conditions, and geometry.
HT_Chapter_6.pdf
Convection involves fluid motion and heat conduction. It can be classified as internal, external, compressible, incompressible, laminar, turbulent, natural, or forced flow. Dimensionless numbers like Reynolds, Prandtl, and Nusselt are used to characterize convection problems. Solutions to the convection equations for a flat plate provide important results like boundary layer thicknesses and heat transfer coefficients.
Fluid flow and measurement
This document discusses fluid flow, including definitions, types of flow, and factors affecting flow. It defines laminar and turbulent flow, and notes laminar flow is smooth while turbulent flow is disorganized. Pressure, radius, length, viscosity, density, and temperature can impact flow. Clinical applications of flow include devices like rotameters and measurements of breathing.
Chan yeeyi convection
Convection is the transfer of heat by the circulation of currents from one region to another in a fluid (liquid or gas). Hot fluids expand and become less dense, rising and transferring heat to cooler regions where denser fluids descend in convection currents. Examples include heated water in a pot forming convection currents and atmospheric convection driving weather patterns with warm air rising and cool air falling. Convection can be natural, driven by density differences, or forced with an external mechanism like a pump circulating the fluid. Convection currents efficiently transport thermal energy in applications like kettles, heaters, air conditioners and refrigerators.
Explain how convection and radiation terms are included in the funda.pdf
Explain how convection and radiation terms are included in the fundamental equation.
Solution
CONVECTION: Flow of heat through currents within a fluid (liquid or gas). Convection is the
displacement of volumes of a substance in a liquid or gaseous phase. When a mass of a fluid is
heated up, for example when it is in contact with a warmer surface, its molecules are carried
away and scattered causing that the mass of that fluid becomes less dense. For this reason, the
warmed mass will be displaced vertically and/or horizontally, while the colder and denser mass
of fluid goes down (the low-kinetic-energy molecules displace the molecules in high-kinetic-
energy states). Through this process, the molecules of the hot fluid transfer heat continuously
toward the volumes of the colder fluid.
For example, when heating up water on a stove, the volume of water at the bottom of the pot will
be warmed up by conduction from the metallic bottom of the pot and its density decreases. Given
that it gets lesser dense, it shifts upwards up to the surface of the volume of water and displaces
the upper -colder and denser- mass of water downwards, to the bottom of the pot.
Formula of Convection:
q = hA (Ts - T ?)
Where h is for convective heat transfer coefficient, A is the area implied in the heat transfer
process, Ts is for the temperature of the system and T ? is a reference temperature.
RADIATION:
It is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves or photons. It does not need a propagating medium.
The energy transferred by radiation moves at the speed of light. The heat radiated by the Sun can
be exchanged between the solar surface and the Earth\'s surface without heating the transitional
space.
For example, if I place an object (such as a coin, a car, or myself) under the direct sunbeams, I
will note in a little while that the object will be heated. The exchange of heat between the Sun
and the object occurs by radiation.
The formula to know the amount of heat transferred by radiation is:
q = e ? A [(?T)^4]
Where q is the heat transferred by radiation, E is the emissivity of the system, ? is the constant of
Stephan-Boltzmann (5.6697 x 10^-8 W/m^2.K^4), A is the area involved in the heat transfer by
radiation, and (?T)^4 is the difference of temperature between two systems to the fourth or
higher power.
Water absorbs the incoming solar Infrared Radiation because the frequency of the internal
vibration of the water molecules is the same frequency of the waves of the solar Infrared
Radiation. This form of Radiative Heat transfer is known as Resonance Absorption.
We humans feel the heat radiated by the Sun and other systems with a higher temperature
because our bodies contain 55-75% of water. The radiative energy inciding on our skin is
absorbed by the molecules of water in our bodies by Resonance Absorption. Just then, the
Infrared Radiation absorbed by our bodies leads to a more intense internal vibration of the water
molecules in our bodies and our bodies get warmer. .
The+ Excretory+ System
The document summarizes the key functions and processes of the excretory system. It discusses homeostasis and how regulators and conformers respond to internal and external changes. It describes the four methods of heat exchange and how circulation aids in temperature regulation. It explains osmoregulation and the nitrogen waste products of different organisms. It provides details on the key functions of excretion including filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion that occur in the nephron. Feedback mechanisms that control water and salt balance are also summarized.
The+Excretory+System
The document summarizes the key functions and processes of the excretory system. It discusses homeostasis and how regulators and conformers respond to internal and external changes. It describes the four methods of heat exchange and how circulation aids in temperature regulation. It explains osmoregulation and the nitrogen waste products of different organisms. It provides details on the key functions of excretion including filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion that occur in the nephron. Feedback mechanisms that control water and salt balance are also summarized.
Convection current
Convection currents are caused by uneven heating of a fluid which causes the warmer, less dense areas to rise and cooler, more dense areas to sink. There are two main types of convection - forced convection, driven by external forces like fans or pumps, and natural convection, driven by density differences in the fluid. Convection occurs in the Earth's mantle, oceans, atmosphere and within appliances like kettles and refrigerators. While convection provides advantages like heating and cooling, excess heat production from electrical resistance according to Joule's law can lead to overheating and safety issues if heat is not properly dissipated.
Question 2
Forced convection boiling occurs when a fluid undergoing a phase change from liquid to vapor is forced to move over or inside a heated surface by an external force like a pump. It exhibits characteristics of both convection and pool boiling. Internal forced convection boiling, also called two-phase flow, is more complex as both the liquid and vapor phases flow together inside the heated surface with no free space for the vapor to escape. The flow patterns within can range from a total liquid flow to different vapor-liquid mixtures to a total vapor flow, depending on the relative amounts of each phase present.
Heat and mass transfer -Convective transfer.pptx
Conduction involves heat transfer through a stationary solid or fluid medium, while convection requires the movement of a fluid. Heat is transferred through solids by conduction alone, but through liquids and gases it can be by conduction or convection depending on whether the fluid is moving. Convection refers specifically to heat transfer between a surface and a flowing fluid in contact with it, described by Newton's law of cooling which relates heat transfer rate to the temperature difference between the surface and fluid and the heat transfer coefficient. Forced convection involves external forcing of fluid flow, while free convection is driven by buoyancy forces induced by temperature differences in the fluid.
2014.10.28 pres cae_finale
This document discusses using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to model thermal comfort in buildings. It presents a CFD study of transient heat transfer over a mixed radiative/convective system with time- and space-varying boundary conditions. The study analyzes natural convection, forced convection, and heat radiation phenomena. CFD is proposed as a method to model these phenomena and design new conditioning terminal products through simulation-based design. Integrating CFD with design allows simulation of physical fluid dynamics that are difficult to test experimentally.
Fluid mechanics Cengel and Cimbala + NPTEL
1. Fluids deform continuously under any applied shear stress and never stop deforming, unlike solids which will stop deforming after reaching a fixed strain.
2. Gases have much lower intermolecular forces than liquids or solids, requiring a large amount of energy release during phase changes between gas and liquid or solid.
3. The no-slip condition means that fluid velocity is zero at any solid boundary, due to viscosity, resulting in boundary layers and surface drag.
Theory of evaporation
It contains the information about evaporation and the theory of evaporation with a neat graphical representation.
Pipe branching system and Revision
This document provides an introduction to key concepts in fluid mechanics. It begins by outlining the objectives of understanding basic fluid mechanics concepts. It then discusses various fluid flow types and conditions like laminar versus turbulent flow, compressible versus incompressible flow, and internal versus external flow. Key concepts like viscosity, vapor pressure, cavitation, surface tension, and capillary effects are also introduced. Equations for hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces are provided. In summary, the document serves as an overview of fundamental fluid mechanics topics.
Etht grp 11(140080125009,10,11,12)
This document discusses convection heat transfer. It begins by defining convection and Newton's Law of Cooling. It then describes the two types of convection: forced convection, which is driven by external forces, and natural (or free) convection, which is driven by buoyancy forces. It also discusses boundary layers, turbulent versus laminar flow, the Reynolds, Nusselt, and Prandtl numbers, and their relationships to convection. Specific examples covered include temperature profiles in pipes, flow over flat plates and cylinders, and forced convection in laminar and turbulent pipe flow.
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Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism occurring in nature and mimic.pdf
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Countercurrent mechanism
- 2. Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism in which there is a crossover of some property, usually heat or some chemical, between two flowing bodies flowing in opposite directions to each other.
- 3. The maximum amount of heat or mass transfer that can be obtained is higher with countercurrent than co-current (parallel) exchange because countercurrent maintains a slowly declining difference or gradient (usually temperature or concentration difference). In cocurrent exchange the initial gradient is higher but falls off quickly, leading to wasted potential. The result is that countercurrent exchange can achieve a greater amount of transfer than parallel under otherwise similar conditions.
- 4. Counter current multiplier
- 5. The repetitive reabsorption of sodium chloride by the thick ascending loop of Henle and continued inflow of new sodium chloride from the proximal tubule into the loop of Henle is called the countercurrent multiplier. The sodium chloride reabsorbed from the ascending loop of Henle keeps adding to the newly arrived sodium chloride, thus “multiplying” its concentration in the medullary interstitium.
- 6. Counter current exchange
- 7. Plasma flowing down the descending limb of the vasa recta becomes more hyperosmotic because of diffusion of water out of the blood and diffusion of solutes from the renal interstitial fluid into the blood. In the ascending limb of the vasa recta, solutes diffuse back into the interstitial fluid and water diffuses back into the vasa recta. Large amounts of solutes would be lost from the renal medulla without the U shape of the vasa recta capillaries.
- 13. Thank you