This document provides an overview of Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory. It defines key concepts like cognition, cognitive dissonance, and consistency theories. It explains that cognitive dissonance is an aversive motivational state that occurs when a person holds two inconsistent cognitions. The theory proposes that people are motivated to reduce dissonance by altering their cognitions. The document also summarizes major phenomena studied, including selective exposure to information and post-decision dissonance. It analyzes cognitive dissonance theory as an objective, nomothetic communication theory that seeks to understand universal laws of human behavior.
In the field of psychology, cognitive dissonance is the perception of contradictory information. Relevant items of information include a person's actions, feelings, ideas, beliefs, values, and things in the environment.
In the field of psychology, cognitive dissonance is the perception of contradictory information. Relevant items of information include a person's actions, feelings, ideas, beliefs, values, and things in the environment.
Attitudes and Attitude change
• The different origins of attitudes
• Attitude structure
• Functions of attitudes
• Methods for measuring attitudes
• The link between attitude and behaviour
• Theories of attitude change
A detailed presentation on a ATTITUDE- a concept of applied psychology. ABC model, nature and components, centrality and valence are briefly described. For more info- @sajalmittal2021@gmail.com
ATTITUDE: CONCEPTS AND MODELS- COGNITIVE DISSONANCE AND TRI-COMPONENT THEORY pptNazimAhmad6
Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort or stress experienced by an individual who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at the same time
Descartes Epistemology
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Epistemology Paper
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Attitudes and Attitude change
• The different origins of attitudes
• Attitude structure
• Functions of attitudes
• Methods for measuring attitudes
• The link between attitude and behaviour
• Theories of attitude change
A detailed presentation on a ATTITUDE- a concept of applied psychology. ABC model, nature and components, centrality and valence are briefly described. For more info- @sajalmittal2021@gmail.com
ATTITUDE: CONCEPTS AND MODELS- COGNITIVE DISSONANCE AND TRI-COMPONENT THEORY pptNazimAhmad6
Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort or stress experienced by an individual who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at the same time
Descartes Epistemology
Research Philosophy: Epistemology
Epistemology Paper
Epistemology Vs. Theory Of Knowledge
Literature Review On Epistemology
Epistemic Issue
Essay on A Study of Epistemology
On Epistemology and Skepticism Essay
Personal Epistemology Essay
Epistemology
Epistemology In Business And Management
Examples Of Epistemology
Epistemology and Its Influences
Epistemology Paper
Personal Epistemology
Naturalized Epistemology Essays
Epistemology and Knowledge Essay
Epistemology And Belief Of Epistemology Essay
Content:
Introduction and Status quo . 2
Ontology .
Epistemology .
Me hodolog . . .3
Research De ign . . 4
The introduction of Background Theory . 4
Background Theorie .
Reference . . . .. . 6
Introduction and status quo
The family business is the prevalent organizational form of business globally (Daily and Dollinger,
1993). One of the distinguishing features of family firms (FFs) is that they are built upon close
relationships among family members (Cruz et al., 2010), which can serve as a valuable resource
for serious tensions (Herrero, 2018). Some scholars see conflict as the source of all evil (Jayantilal
et al., 2016) that can create anxiety, especially among spouses. The tensions may be transferred to
other family members, notably the children, which may cause severe dysfunctional problems in
the family. These problems may put the whole family business in danger. These assumptions are
too simplistic and misleading and are one of the main reasons why the literature on this topic
remains largely undertheorized and fragmented, resulting in theoretical limitations and empirical
indeterminacy (Pai and Bendersky, 2020). we (Paola Rovelli,2021) advice for further research
that looks more closely at the family system, considering for instance aspects such as conflicts to
increase their attention towards the consequences of such inconsistencies. The psychology
literature suggests that moderate levels of conflict may enhance group performance through
improved decision-making processes, fostered innovation, and enhanced creativity Likewise,
conflict is not always negative (cognitive conflict), as it may lead to constructive challenges and
improvements (e.g., Ensley & Pearson, 2005. The purpose of this research is that it will give
insights to understand why in some contexts conflict leads to negative performance and why in
others to a positive outcome.
Ontology
An area of philosoph , that deals with the nature of being, or what exists; the area of philosophy
that asks what is and what the fundamental categories of reality are (Neuman, 2014, p. 94). social
reality is created by subjects through their interactions and interpretations, actors influence
structures and regularities, knowledge about social reality is always dependent on subjects and
social relations. In the concept of ontology, this research will put in the concept of nominalism
(as opposed to realism). Nominalists believe in multiple versions of reality, which is derived from
the researcher s interpretations of truth, and depending on the researcher s experience, it can only
be transferred to similar contexts. conflicts, as phenomena of social reality (Kellermanns and
Eddleston, 2004) focuses on communications, relationships and sees communicative acts as the
elements rather than persons. To understand it, the researcher should penetrate the depth of the
matter. Conflicts as a complex web of ...
Dr. Ahmad, Full Text; Origin Ontology of Future Scenario's IdeaDr. Ahmad, Futurist.
Origin Ontology of Future Scenario's Idea, International Conference on Multilateral Cooperation: Emerging Global Scenario, India, 22-24 February 2016. Already cancelled in Scenario 2015 (Improving Scenario Methodology: Theory and Practice), WBS. UK, December 2015, p. 37. http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/wbs/subjects/orms/ormsevents/scenario2015/programme/updated_11.12.pdf http://studylib.net/doc/13510220/scenario-2015-improving-scenario-methodology--theory-and-...
Environmental changes coupled with the impact on globalization leading to increasing complexity in many developing strategies, especially on the foresight and futures studies. These trends pose a fundamental question, what is the chalenges of future’s complexity? It seems before understanding the origin of Future Scenario's idea and laws governing the Future Time, we've gone into the application of Scenarios to build better stories about future.
In this paper we deeply investigated following issues in order to demonstrate the effects of the origin of idea's ontology on Future Scenarios;
1. Idea ontology,
2. The origin of creative thinking,
3. Idea nurturing in organizations,
4. Shaping the future time,
5. Scenario planning,
6. Ideas social network (global brain).
This paper is a fundamental research type that makes theory for an applied science. In fact, we seek to bridge an ontology base with an applied knowledge. According to qualitative approach this study because of its data references to valid resources is valid and due to expert's continuous supervisions is reliable.
Conceptual Model that have been emerged from this investigation, shows how we can improve scenario planning ability and what actually should be done to have good scenarios.
Copyright Information (bibliographic) Document Type Book Ch.docxmelvinjrobinson2199
Copyright Information (bibliographic)
Document Type: Book Chapter
Title of book: Family Therapy: An Overview (9th Edition)
Author of book: Irene Goldenberg, Mark Stanton, Herbert Goldenberg
Chapter Title: Chapter 4 Systems Theory and Systemic Thinking
Author of Chapter: Irene Goldenberg, Mark Stanton, Herbert Goldenberg
Year: 2017
Publisher: Cengage Learning
Place of Publishing: United States of America
The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of
photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted materials. Under certain conditions
specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other
reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction is not
to be used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research. If a user makes
a request for, or later uses, a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excess of fair use
that user may be liable for copyright infringement.
LO 1 Describe potential problems with
using only the scientific method to
explain family functioning
LO 2 Explain systemic functioning using
a paradigm or descriptive model
LO 3 Discuss some characteristics of a
family system
LO 4 Apply systemic thinking to family
therapy
84
Family therapy is informed by systems theory and systemic
thinking in order to fully understand and provide psycho
therapy to couples and families (Stanton & Welsh, 2012).
A systemic approach stands in contrast to the individualis
tic thinking typical of most people raised in Western society
who were educated in the context of the Cartesian scientific
method espoused by Rene Descartes in 1738 (Capra, 2002).
1 Extending Beyond the
Scientific Method
The scientific method begins with a questioning mind that
does not accept anything as true unless there is clear evidence
of its truth and proceeds to break any problem under inves
tigation into pieces in order to understand the components
of the problem and tries to solve it. The reconnection of the
pieces proceeds from those easiest to understand to those most
complex without considering any natural connection between
the parts and concludes when thorough questioning ensures
nothing was left out of the solution. This method led to ma
jor scientific discoveries and the solution of many problems in
medicine, food production, and industry. Most of us in the
western hemisphere were educated to think according to this
method, and we now do so without even realizing we are do
ing so. However, as this method became the standard way of
thinking in Western societies, it resulted in extreme individ
ualism (loss of the natural relationship between parts of the
whole), reductionism (trying to understand complex problems
by looking at parts of them apart from the context around
SYSTEMS THEORY AND SYSTEMIC THINKING
them,.
Copyright Information (bibliographic) Document Type Book Ch.docxdickonsondorris
Copyright Information (bibliographic)
Document Type: Book Chapter
Title of book: Family Therapy: An Overview (9th Edition)
Author of book: Irene Goldenberg, Mark Stanton, Herbert Goldenberg
Chapter Title: Chapter 4 Systems Theory and Systemic Thinking
Author of Chapter: Irene Goldenberg, Mark Stanton, Herbert Goldenberg
Year: 2017
Publisher: Cengage Learning
Place of Publishing: United States of America
The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of
photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted materials. Under certain conditions
specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other
reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction is not
to be used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research. If a user makes
a request for, or later uses, a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excess of fair use
that user may be liable for copyright infringement.
LO 1 Describe potential problems with
using only the scientific method to
explain family functioning
LO 2 Explain systemic functioning using
a paradigm or descriptive model
LO 3 Discuss some characteristics of a
family system
LO 4 Apply systemic thinking to family
therapy
84
Family therapy is informed by systems theory and systemic
thinking in order to fully understand and provide psycho
therapy to couples and families (Stanton & Welsh, 2012).
A systemic approach stands in contrast to the individualis
tic thinking typical of most people raised in Western society
who were educated in the context of the Cartesian scientific
method espoused by Rene Descartes in 1738 (Capra, 2002).
1 Extending Beyond the
Scientific Method
The scientific method begins with a questioning mind that
does not accept anything as true unless there is clear evidence
of its truth and proceeds to break any problem under inves
tigation into pieces in order to understand the components
of the problem and tries to solve it. The reconnection of the
pieces proceeds from those easiest to understand to those most
complex without considering any natural connection between
the parts and concludes when thorough questioning ensures
nothing was left out of the solution. This method led to ma
jor scientific discoveries and the solution of many problems in
medicine, food production, and industry. Most of us in the
western hemisphere were educated to think according to this
method, and we now do so without even realizing we are do
ing so. However, as this method became the standard way of
thinking in Western societies, it resulted in extreme individ
ualism (loss of the natural relationship between parts of the
whole), reductionism (trying to understand complex problems
by looking at parts of them apart from the context around
SYSTEMS THEORY AND SYSTEMIC THINKING
them,.
2Resources for the Integrative Literature Review8Resou.docxdomenicacullison
2
Resources for the Integrative Literature Review
8
Resources for the Integrative Literature Review
Resources for the Integrative Literature Review
PSY 699
March 31,2020
Introduction
Scientists in the recent past have been marveled at the human brain and how it is shaping so many spheres in the human life. Further proper understanding of how the human brains influences our behavior under any context or experience has made psychology one of the most fascinating field of study. According to Jean Piaget a renowned psychologist he argued that the person we are today is basically a compilation of various small habits, beliefs and even thoughts that go through in our mind. This analogy has further been expounded by Sigmund Freud who argued that the four major domains of psychology which are cognitive domain, biological domain, developmental domain and social and personality domain are all interlinked in one way or the other. Some of the theories in the four domains of psychology include a rational motive behavior therapy theory developed by Albert Elli, also Aron Beck’s theory on cognitive therapy. Other theories which have gained recognition in this field of psychology include the trait or perspective theory, evolutionary theory, psychodynamic theory and lastly social identity theory. In addition, there exist a connection between some of the domains for instance the biological domain which basically analyses how human biology influences virtually all the mental process and even our own behaviors.
This domain of psychology closely relates to cognitive domain of psychology which focuses majorly on the study of emotions, behavior, cognitions and even our relationship with the society and other people in general. Further the connection between the two domains is that cognitive domain relies on the biological domain to understand how our biology in terms of neuroscience influences our emotions, relationships, thoughts and behavior.
The same connection is true for developmental domain which relies on cognitive domain to understand what could be the factors that influences human being development. It is also worth noting that not all points from the four domains agree with each other since there are some points with competing views across the four domains. Some of these competing points include biological domain arguing that neuroscience controls largely all the other domain of psychology a point which is disputed by social and personality domain. It therefore means that integration of these domains is pertinent in providing a holistic understanding in the field of psychology. Also, the four domains have a long history spanning to even ten centuries since the field of psychology began immediately with the creation of human beings and its curiosity of trying to understand how its brain or mind works and further its relationship with the environment in which man exist in (Prada, Garrison, Camilo, & Rodrigues, 2018).
Findings have indicated.
Philosophy as the study of results of special sciencesinventionjournals
There is not unanimity amongst philosophers as what philosophy actually studies. Various schools of thought exist. As a consequence one school of thought represented by Herbert Spencer states that philosophy is not an individual science but that it studies the sumtotal of the truths of the individual sciences, giving a kind of universal truth arrived at by means of and through a systematic synthesis of various sciences. This then forms the subject – matter of this journal article.
Neuro-symbolic is not enough, we need neuro-*semantic*Frank van Harmelen
Neuro-symbolic (NeSy) AI is on the rise. However, simply machine learning on just any symbolic structure is not sufficient to really harvest the gains of NeSy. These will only be gained when the symbolic structures have an actual semantics. I give an operational definition of semantics as “predictable inference”.
All of this illustrated with link prediction over knowledge graphs, but the argument is general.
Builder.ai Founder Sachin Dev Duggal's Strategic Approach to Create an Innova...Ramesh Iyer
In today's fast-changing business world, Companies that adapt and embrace new ideas often need help to keep up with the competition. However, fostering a culture of innovation takes much work. It takes vision, leadership and willingness to take risks in the right proportion. Sachin Dev Duggal, co-founder of Builder.ai, has perfected the art of this balance, creating a company culture where creativity and growth are nurtured at each stage.
Kubernetes & AI - Beauty and the Beast !?! @KCD Istanbul 2024Tobias Schneck
As AI technology is pushing into IT I was wondering myself, as an “infrastructure container kubernetes guy”, how get this fancy AI technology get managed from an infrastructure operational view? Is it possible to apply our lovely cloud native principals as well? What benefit’s both technologies could bring to each other?
Let me take this questions and provide you a short journey through existing deployment models and use cases for AI software. On practical examples, we discuss what cloud/on-premise strategy we may need for applying it to our own infrastructure to get it to work from an enterprise perspective. I want to give an overview about infrastructure requirements and technologies, what could be beneficial or limiting your AI use cases in an enterprise environment. An interactive Demo will give you some insides, what approaches I got already working for real.
Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey 2024 by 91mobiles.pdf91mobiles
91mobiles recently conducted a Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey in which we asked over 3,000 respondents about the TV they own, aspects they look at on a new TV, and their TV buying preferences.
GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using Deplo...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
Securing your Kubernetes cluster_ a step-by-step guide to success !KatiaHIMEUR1
Today, after several years of existence, an extremely active community and an ultra-dynamic ecosystem, Kubernetes has established itself as the de facto standard in container orchestration. Thanks to a wide range of managed services, it has never been so easy to set up a ready-to-use Kubernetes cluster.
However, this ease of use means that the subject of security in Kubernetes is often left for later, or even neglected. This exposes companies to significant risks.
In this talk, I'll show you step-by-step how to secure your Kubernetes cluster for greater peace of mind and reliability.
Slack (or Teams) Automation for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Soluti...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on the notifications, alerts, and approval requests using Slack for Bonterra Impact Management. The solutions covered in this webinar can also be deployed for Microsoft Teams.
Interested in deploying notification automations for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 3DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 3. In this session, we will cover desktop automation along with UI automation.
Topics covered:
UI automation Introduction,
UI automation Sample
Desktop automation flow
Pradeep Chinnala, Senior Consultant Automation Developer @WonderBotz and UiPath MVP
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
Elevating Tactical DDD Patterns Through Object CalisthenicsDorra BARTAGUIZ
After immersing yourself in the blue book and its red counterpart, attending DDD-focused conferences, and applying tactical patterns, you're left with a crucial question: How do I ensure my design is effective? Tactical patterns within Domain-Driven Design (DDD) serve as guiding principles for creating clear and manageable domain models. However, achieving success with these patterns requires additional guidance. Interestingly, we've observed that a set of constraints initially designed for training purposes remarkably aligns with effective pattern implementation, offering a more ‘mechanical’ approach. Let's explore together how Object Calisthenics can elevate the design of your tactical DDD patterns, offering concrete help for those venturing into DDD for the first time!
Essentials of Automations: Optimizing FME Workflows with ParametersSafe Software
Are you looking to streamline your workflows and boost your projects’ efficiency? Do you find yourself searching for ways to add flexibility and control over your FME workflows? If so, you’re in the right place.
Join us for an insightful dive into the world of FME parameters, a critical element in optimizing workflow efficiency. This webinar marks the beginning of our three-part “Essentials of Automation” series. This first webinar is designed to equip you with the knowledge and skills to utilize parameters effectively: enhancing the flexibility, maintainability, and user control of your FME projects.
Here’s what you’ll gain:
- Essentials of FME Parameters: Understand the pivotal role of parameters, including Reader/Writer, Transformer, User, and FME Flow categories. Discover how they are the key to unlocking automation and optimization within your workflows.
- Practical Applications in FME Form: Delve into key user parameter types including choice, connections, and file URLs. Allow users to control how a workflow runs, making your workflows more reusable. Learn to import values and deliver the best user experience for your workflows while enhancing accuracy.
- Optimization Strategies in FME Flow: Explore the creation and strategic deployment of parameters in FME Flow, including the use of deployment and geometry parameters, to maximize workflow efficiency.
- Pro Tips for Success: Gain insights on parameterizing connections and leveraging new features like Conditional Visibility for clarity and simplicity.
We’ll wrap up with a glimpse into future webinars, followed by a Q&A session to address your specific questions surrounding this topic.
Don’t miss this opportunity to elevate your FME expertise and drive your projects to new heights of efficiency.
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
Leading Change strategies and insights for effective change management pdf 1.pdf
Congnitive
1. The theory of cognitive dissonance
By Adam Kowol
Contents:
1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 2
2. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES........................................... 2
3. MAJOR COGNITIVE DISSONANCE PHENOMENA ...................................... 4
4. REVISIONS AND ALTERNATIVE INTERPRETATIONS .............................. 9
5. TENTATIVE ASSESSMENT OF THE THEORY............................................. 10
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 11
2. 1. Introduction
The aim of the present paper is to provide a general overview of cognitive dissonance
theory. We begin by defining the basic concepts and summarizing the principal postulates of
the theory. We point to possible classifications of the theory in terms of different forms of
scholarship and types of theory by considering relevant philosophical and methodological
assumptions. We go on to discuss the main areas of research focusing on dissonance
phenomena. In addition, we present major revisions and alternative interpretations of the
theory. We conclude by attempting to assess the theory on the basis of generally accepted
criteria.
The theory of cognitive dissonance is one of the most significant and influential theories
in the history of social psychology. Suffice it to mention that only five years after its
introduction, Brehm and Cohen (1962, as cited in Bem, 1967, p. 183) could review over fifty
studies conducted within the framework the theory. In the following five years, every major
social-psychological journal averaged at least one article per issue probing some prediction
derived from its basic propositions. In the course of five decades that have passed since it was
formulated by Leon Festinger, it has found widespread applications in various fields of
scientific investigation, including communication studies (e.g., Griffin, 2006; Littlejohn &
Foss, 2005), marketing (e.g., Rice, 1997), economic theory (James & Gutkind, 1985), and
behavioral finance (Ricciardi & Simon, 2000).
2. Fundamental concepts and principles
The central proposition of Festinger’s theory is that if a person holds two cognitions that
are inconsistent with one another, he will experience the pressure of an aversive motivational
state called cognitive dissonance, a pressure which he will seek to remove, among other ways,
by altering one of the two dissonant cognitions (Bem, 1967, p. 183). If we wish to analyze the
hypothesis stated above in detail, it is essential to define several basic concepts. A cognition
(also called a cognitive element) may be broadly defined as any belief, opinion, attitude,
perception, or piece of knowledge about anything - about other persons, objects, issues,
oneself, and so on (Aronson, 2004, p. 146; Littlejohn & Foss, 2005, p. 77; O'Keefe, 2002, p.
78). Littlejohn and Foss (2005) define a cognitive system as "a complex, interacting set of
beliefs, attitudes, and values that affect and are affected by behavior" (p. 81). Festinger
2
3. considered the need to avoid dissonance to be just as basic as the need for safety or the need
to satisfy hunger (Griffin, 2006, p. 228). Psychologists define a drive as any internal source of
motivation that impels an organism to pursue a goal or to satisfy a need, such as sex, hunger,
or self-preservation. The distressing (aversive) mental state termed cognitive dissonance is
therefore conceptualized as an aversive drive.
In this paper, we are primarily interested in Festinger's theory as one of a diverse range of
theories of human communication. Bormann (1989, as cited in Griffin, 2006) refers to
communication theory as an "umbrella term for all careful, systematic and self-conscious
discussion and analysis of communication phenomena" (p. 6). Scholars have made many
attempts to define communication but establishing a single definition has proved impossible
(Littlejohn & Foss, 2005, p. 12). For the purposes of the present discussion, communication
will be taken to mean "all those processes by which people influence one another" (Ruesh &
Bateson, 1951, as cited in Watson & Hill, 1989, p. 41). Inasmuch as Festinger's theory is
concerned with attitude change and attempts to discern how persuasive messages are
processed in the minds of listeners, there is no doubt that it may be regarded as a
communication theory.
That brings us to the next point, namely the categorization of cognitive dissonance
theory. As has been noted above, it is firmly planted in the sociopsychological tradition,
which focuses on individual social behavior, psychological variables, perception, and
cognition. At the same time, however, it is so infused with system thinking that it must be
included in the cybernetic tradition as well. Festinger's theory is one of a group of cybernetic
theories known as consistency theories, all of which begin with the same premise: people are
more comfortable with consistency than inconsistency. In cybernetic language, people seek
homeostasis, or balance, and the cognitive system is a primary tool by which this balance is
achieved. The mind is imagined as a system that takes inputs from the environment in the
form of information, processes it, and then creates behavioral outputs (Littlejohn & Foss,
2005).
There are two distinct perspectives within the field of communication theory: objective
and interpretive (Griffin, 2006). Festinger's theory, belonging to the sociopsychological
tradition, epitomizes the scientific (objective) perspective. Scholars in this tradition believe
there are communication truths that can be discovered by careful, systematic observation. The
objective approach of the theory manifests itself in its epistemological assumptions: there is
one reality, waiting to be discovered by employing quantitative research methods such as
3
4. experiments and surveys. In contrast to interpretive scholars, social scientists work to pin
down universal laws of human behavior that cover a variety of situations. They consider good
theories to be mirrors of nature. It can thus be concluded that the theory of cognitive
dissonance is a nomothetic theory – one that seeks universal and general laws. This approach
is based on the hypothetico-deductive method, which involves the following processes: (1)
developing questions, (2) forming hypotheses, (3) testing the hypotheses, and (4) formulating
theory. Festinger's theory appears to make certain philosophical assumptions that are typical
of nomothetic theories. In epistemology, the theory espouses empiricist and rationalist ideas.
In terms of axiology, the theory takes a value-neutral stance. In terms of ontology, the theory
assumes that behavior is basically determined by and responsive to biology and the
environment (Littlejohn & Foss, 2005, pp. 23-24).
Three possible relations might exist between any two cognitive elements. The first type
of relationship is irrelevant (neither affects the other), the second is consonant (consistent),
and the third kind is dissonant (inconsistent). Two elements are said to be in a dissonant
relation if the opposite of one element follows from the other. The degree of dissonance
experienced is a function of two factors: (1) the relative proportions of consonant and
dissonant elements and (2) the importance of the elements or issue (Littlejohn & Foss, 2005,
p. 77; O'Keefe, 2002, p. 78). Festinger imagined a number of methods for dealing with
cognitive dissonance: (1) altering the importance of the issue or the elements involved, (2)
changing one or more of the cognitive elements, (3) adding new elements to one side of the
tension or the other, (4) seeking consonant information, and (5) distorting or misinterpreting
dissonant evidence (Littlejohn & Foss, 2005, p. 78; O'Keefe, 2002, p. 79).
3. Major cognitive dissonance phenomena
Let us now turn to a brief discussion of major cognitive dissonance phenomena. Most of
them can generally be arranged into four groups: (1) selective exposure to information, (2)
postdecision dissonance, (3) minimal justification (induced compliance), and (4) hypocrisy
induction.
The first area of dissonance theory research concerns people's propensity to expose
themselves selectively to information. As has been indicated, dissonance is an aversive
motivational state, therefore people naturally attempt to avoid dissonance-arousing situations.
That is to say, persons prefer to be exposed to information that is supportive of their current
beliefs rather than to nonsupportive information, which presumably could arouse dissonance.
4
5. Interestingly enough, dissonance theory’s selective exposure hypothesis calls into
question the purported significant and far-reaching impacts of the mass media on the
audience. If people generally seek out only media sources that confirm or reinforce their prior
beliefs, then the powerful effects of the mass media are blunted (O'Keefe, 2002, p. 85).
As will be argued below, people are adept at justifying their behavior. An example that
suggests itself is that of smokers who cognitively minimize the danger of smoking. This
involves the dismissal of a large body of evidence regarding the illnesses that cigarettes can
cause, and the rejection of all negative aspects of smoking. By the same token, some
theologians claim that science cannot settle the issue of God's possible superintendence of
nature because scientific evidence is completely irrelevant to theological questions. Dawkins
(2007, p. 78) suggests that religious apologists would eagerly embrace any scientific evidence
in favor of religious belief. Though arguably irrational, their behavior may at least in part be
explained in terms of the selective exposure hypothesis.
Although there may be some preference for supportive information, O'Keefe (2002, p.
86) emphasizes the fact that this preference is only one of many influences on information
exposure, and hence it may be overridden by other considerations, such as the perceived
utility of the information, curiosity, and fairness.
The second research area we would like to discuss is postdecision dissonance.
Undoubtedly, close-call decisions can generate huge amounts of internal tension after the
decision has been made. Following a decision, people agonize over whether they made the
right choice. The magnitude of this dissonance depends on the following factors: (1)
importance of the issue, (2) delays in choosing between two equally attractive options, (3)
difficulty involved in reversing the decision, (4) attractiveness of the chosen alternative, (5)
attractiveness of the rejected alternative, (6) the degree of similarity or overlap between the
alternatives, and (7) the number of options considered (Griffin, 2006, p. 231; Littlejohn &
Foss, 2005, p. 78; Rice, 1997, p. 114). Being plagued with regrets and second thoughts after a
tough choice, people automatically seek information that vindicates their decision and allays
nagging doubts.
This kind of dissonance, called "buyer's remorse" by salespeople (Littlejohn & Foss,
2005, p. 78), arises after buying something valuable, such as a car or a house. Obviously, the
chosen alternative is seldom entirely positive and the rejected alternatives are seldom entirely
negative. A good way to reduce such dissonance is to seek out exclusively positive
information about the car you chose and avoid negative information about it (Aronson, 2004,
5
6. p.155). According to Smith (1993, p. 71), sellers should address postpurchase dissonance by
reassuring the buyer with a congratulatory note, additional advertising, after-sales service and,
most of all, a product or service that lives up to the promise made in the advertising.
An experiment by Brehm (1956, as cited in Aronson, 2004, p. 155) clearly demonstrates
people's capability of reassuring themselves. Several women were given eight different
appliances and asked to rate them in terms of attractiveness. Each woman was told she could
have one of the appliances as a gift and given a choice between two of the products she had
rated as being equally attractive. Several minutes later, she was asked to rate the products
again. The results were as follows: women rated the attractiveness of their chosen appliances
somewhat higher and decreased the rating of the rejected appliances. In other words, they
spread apart the alternatives to reduce dissonance.
An experiment by Mills (1958, as cited in Aronson, 2004, p. 161) demonstrated how
moral attitudes may change drastically as a consequence of decisions taken. Mills first
measured 6th-graders' attitudes about cheating. Then, they participated in a competitive exam
with prizes offered to the winners. As expected, some students cheated and others did not.
When asked again to indicate their feelings about cheating, those who had cheated showed
more lenient attitudes toward cheating, and those who resisted the temptation to cheat became
even more strict about cheating.
Freedman and Fraser (1966, as cited in Argyle, 1994, p. 138; see also Aronson, 2004, p.
158) have demonstrated that when individuals commit themselves in a small way, the
likelihood that they will commit themselves further in that direction is increased. The process
of using small favors to encourage people to accede to larger requests is called the foot-in-the-
door technique.
Another research area in the study of persuasive communication is termed minimal
justification. The theory predicts that counter-attitudinal action, freely chosen with little
incentive or justification, leads to a change in attitude. If we are to fully understand this
principle, it is necessary to distinguish between external and internal justification. External
justification is a person's reason or explanation for his or her dissonant behavior that resides
not in the individual but rather in the situation (such as politeness, drunkenness, praise, or
reward), whereas internal justification is the reduction of dissonance by changing something
about oneself (e.g., one's attitude or behavior). If an individual states a belief that is difficult
to justify externally, that person will attempt to justify it internally by making his or her
attitudes more consistent with the statement (Aronson, 2004, p. 164).
6
7. Surprising as it may seem, dissonance theory predicts that we begin to believe our own
lies – but only if there is not abundant external justification for making the statements that go
against our original attitudes. This powerful form of permanent attitude change has been
called the "saying is believing" paradigm. We are modifying our attitudes because we have
succeeded in convincing ourselves that our previous attitudes were incorrect. These
speculations have been investigated scientifically in a number of experiments. The best
known and most widely quoted forced-compliance study was conducted by Festinger and
Carlsmith (1959). They asked college students to perform a very boring and repetitive series
of tasks and then induced them to tell a potential female subject that the activities were
interesting and enjoyable. Some of the men were promised $20 to express enthusiasm about
the task, whereas others were offered only $1. After the experiment was over, those students
who had been paid $20 for lying rated the activity as dull, while those who lied for $1
maintained that it was much more enjoyable. Festinger said that $1 was just barely enough to
induce compliance to the experimenter's request, hence the students had to create another
justification. They changed their attitudes toward the task to bring it into line with their
behavior.
In an important set of experiments, Leippe and Eisenstadt (1994, as cited in Aronson,
2004, p. 166) induced white college students to write an essay demonstrating counter-
attitudinal advocacy: publicly endorsing a proposal to increase the amount of scholarship
funds for African-American students, which meant cutting the scholarship amounts for white
students. In order to reduce the high dissonance evoked by the situation, the students
convinced themselves that they really believed deeply in that policy. Moreover, they adopted
a more favorable and supportive attitude toward African-Americans. It is important to realize
that external justification may come in a variety of forms other than monetary gain, such as
the willingness to do something unpleasant as a favor to a friendly person (Zimbardo,
Weisenberg, Firestone, & Levy, 1965, as cited in Aronson, 2004, p. 167).
The mechanism in question has important practical implications for parents and
educators. As has been shown in a number of experiments (Aronson & Carlsmith, 1963;
Freedman, 1965, as cited in Aronson, 2004, p. 174), excessive punishment might produce
short-term obedience but not underlying change. Similarly, in trying to encourage children to
do their homework, parents ought to think carefully about offering extremely large rewards
for compliance, since such rewards can undermine the development of positive attitudes
toward homework. In other words, smaller incentives for freely chosen counter-attitudinal
7
8. behavior are more likely to produce underlying favorable attitudes toward that behavior
(O'Keefe, 2002, p. 93). Furthermore, Deci (1971, as cited in Aronson, 2004, p. 166)
demonstrated that offering rewards to people for performing a pleasant activity actually
decreases the intrinsic attractiveness of that activity.
It should be noted that researchers have not always obtained the induced-compliance
effects predicted by dissonance theory. Two important limiting conditions have been
identified. The predicted dissonance effects in induced-compliance situations are obtained
only (1) when the participants feel that they had a choice about whether to comply, and (2)
when there is no obvious alternative cause to which the feelings of dissonance can be
attributed (O'Keefe, 2002, p. 92).
The last main group of phenomena we would like to discuss is known as hypocrisy
induction. Sometimes a persuader's task is not so much to encourage people to have the
desired attitudes as it is to encourage people to act on existing attitudes. The basic idea is that
calling attention to the inconsistency of a person's attitudes and actions - that is, the person's
hypocrisy - can arouse dissonance, which then is reduced through behavioral change (altering
the behavior to make it consistent with the existing attitude). In an experiment by Stone et al.
(1994, as cited in O'Keefe, 2002, p. 94; see also Aronson, 2004, p. 174) college students were
confronted with their own hypocrisy. The participants were asked to compose and recite a
speech advocating the use of condoms. In addition, they were made mindful of their past
failures to use condoms, which resulted in a state of high dissonance. As expected, those
students were far more likely to purchase condoms after the experiment.
Dissonance theory leads to the prediction that, if a person goes through a difficult or a
painful experience in order to attain some goal or object, that goal or object becomes more
attractive to the individual than to someone who achieves the same goal with little or no
effort. This process, called justification of effort, was demonstrated in an experiment by
Aronson and Mills (1959, as cited in Aronson, 2004, p. 176). Various groups, such as cults or
college fraternities, commonly exploit this phenomenon by imposing severe initiation rituals,
which serve to create commitment and value for those joining the group. The importance of
volunteering to go through the unpleasant experience was demonstrated experimentally by
Cooper (1980, as cited in Aronson, 2004, p. 177).
The theory of cognitive dissonance may shed light on the enormous power of cult
leaders. A classic participant observation study by Festinger, Riecken, and Schachter (1956,
as cited in Tumminia, 2005, p. 33; see also Huegler, 2006, p. 13; Spilka et al., 2003, p. 356)
8
9. involved a cult in a small American town. The study confirmed Festinger's prediction that
when the group's prophecy of the world's destruction failed, the group would both continue in
its beliefs and attempt even greater proselytization. After major disconfirming events, groups
will presumably seek new converts, the inference being that if newcomers believe then so too
can the people whose beliefs have just been shaken.
Many people find themselves participating in religious rituals even though they have no
personal commitments to the ideas behind them. Festinger's theory suggests that this can
cause individuals to adjust previous beliefs. Acting as if we believe something promotes
belief itself. As people invest greater levels of time and resources into religious practices -
regular attendance, personal relationships, mission work, financial support, and so on - their
commitment to the gods that motivate such behaviors is proportionately reinforced and
strengthened (Tremlin, 2006, p. 131).
4. Revisions and alternative interpretations
A number of revisions to dissonance theory have been suggested, and several competing
explanations have also been proposed. According to Aronson, people experience cognitive
dissonance as a result of psychological inconsistency rather than logical inconsistency
between attitude and behavior. He interprets the $1/$20 experiment as a study of self-esteem
maintenance (Aronson, 2004, p. 169; Griffin, 2006, p. 234). Aronson (1992, as cited in
O'Keefe, 2002, p. 96) has suggested that dissonance arises most plainly from inconsistencies
that specifically involve the self. That is, dissonance is greatest and clearest when it involves
not just any two cognitions but, rather, a cognition about the self and a piece of our behavior
that violates that self-concept. Dissonance-reducing behavior is ego-defensive behavior. By
reducing dissonance, we maintain a positive image of ourselves - an image that depicts us as
good, or smart, or worthwhile. Aronson claims that people are not rational beings, but rather
rationalizing beings. Humans are motivated not so much to be right as to believe they are right
and to justify their own actions, beliefs, and feelings. When they do something, they will try
to convince themselves (and others) that it was a logical, reasonable thing to do.
An experiment by Cialdini and Schroeder (1976, as cited in Aronson, 2004, p. 170)
demonstrated interesting practical implications arising from Aronson's formulation of
dissonance theory. Students acting as fundraisers went door to door, sometimes just asking for
donations and sometimes adding that “even a penny will help”. As conjectured, the residents
who were approached with the even-a-penny request gave contributions more often.
9
10. Furthermore, the even-a-penny contributors were likely to give as much money as the others.
Once people reach into their pockets, emerging with a mere penny is self-demeaning. A larger
donation is consistent with their self-perception of being reasonably kind and generous.
Another major revision to Festinger's original theory was proposed by Bem (1967),
whose theory of self-perception has provided an alternative interpretation of cognitive
dissonance phenomena. He challenged the assumption that it is the discomfort caused by a
threat to the self-concept that motivates people to change their beliefs or behavior. He
developed the notion of self-perception and applied it to some of the research on dissonance
theory. For example, he conducted his own $1/$20 study to test his hypothesis. According to
Bem (1967), "the attitude statements which comprise the major dependent variables in
dissonance experiments may be regarded as interpersonal judgments in which the observer
and the observed happen to be the same individual and that it is unnecessary to postulate an
aversive motivational drive toward consistency to account for the attitude change phenomena
observed" (p. 183). In other words, the people may not be experiencing discomfort and may
not be motivated to justify themselves. Rather, they may simply be observing their own
behavior in a calm and dispassionate way, and drawing conclusions from their observations.
5. Tentative assessment of the theory
Griffin (2006, p. 39) proposed a set of criteria for assessing objective theories: (1)
explanation of the data, (2) prediction of future events, (3) relative simplicity, (4) testability,
and (5) practical utility. As has been argued above, the theory of cognitive dissonance is
reasonably effective in explaining and predicting human behavior, although its expectations
have sometimes received only weak confirmation and unanticipated findings have emerged
(O'Keefe, 2002). The foregoing discussion provides ample evidence of the theory's practical
utility. However, reservations have been expressed about its simplicity. Furthermore,
Festinger's theory contains a serious flaw: it is not falsifiable. There is no way it could be
proved wrong because Festinger never specified a reliable way to detect the degree of
dissonance a person experiences (Griffin, 2006, p. 238). Nevertheless, cognitive dissonance
theory has yielded a number of useful and interesting findings. Moreover, it has served as a
fruitful source of ideas and stimulated substantial relevant research.
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