The document discusses the basic structure of computers including functional units like the CPU, memory, and I/O. It describes how instructions and data are stored in memory and executed by the CPU. The CPU contains arithmetic logic units and registers to process instructions step-by-step under the control of a control unit. System software like operating systems and compilers help manage computer resources and translate programs for execution. Performance depends on hardware design, instruction sets, and software optimization.
This document provides an overview of the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It discusses how instructions and data are stored and processed using components like the CPU, memory, arithmetic logic unit, and control unit. The document also covers concepts like pipelining and parallel processing that can improve performance, as well as differences between RISC and CISC instruction sets. It aims to explain at a high level how a computer works from an architectural perspective.
The document discusses the basic functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input, output, and control units. It describes how instructions and data are stored in memory and processed by the arithmetic logic unit. The control unit governs the transfer of information and timing within the computer. Key aspects like pipelining and increasing clock rate can improve a computer's performance by reducing the time needed to execute instructions.
The document discusses the key components of a computer system. It describes hardware components like the CPU, memory, and input/output devices. It explains that the CPU contains an ALU and control unit and uses registers for temporary storage. Memory is organized in a hierarchy from fast but small registers to larger but slower primary and secondary storage. The control unit coordinates data movement between the CPU and memory.
Basic structure of computers by aniket bhuteAniket Bhute
The document summarizes the basic structure and functional units of computers. It discusses how computers handle information through instructions and data. The main functional units that process information are the memory unit, arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), and control unit. It also describes the number representation systems used in computers, focusing on the two's complement system for signed integers. Addition and subtraction are performed through two's complement arithmetic.
The document summarizes the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It describes how a computer contains a central processing unit (CPU) that includes an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit to execute instructions. A computer also has memory to store programs and data, and input/output (I/O) devices to accept and output information. The CPU fetches instructions from memory, retrieves operands from memory or registers, performs operations in the ALU, and stores results back to memory or registers. The control unit coordinates the flow of data and execution of instructions. Performance can be improved by increasing clock speed, reducing the number of steps per instruction through pipelining and superscalar techniques, and optimizing compilers
The document summarizes key concepts about computer architecture including:
1) It describes the basic functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input and output units, and how they are connected.
2) It explains how computers handle and process information through instructions and data, and how this information is stored in memory and encoded digitally.
3) It provides details on the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, and how they work together to perform computation and control the flow of operations.
The document discusses the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It covers:
- The main functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input/output devices, and their interconnections.
- How instructions and data are represented and handled in a computer using binary encoding.
- The roles of the main memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, and registers in storing and processing instructions and data.
- Basic concepts of computer operation including fetching instructions from memory, retrieving operands, executing operations in the ALU, and storing results.
To perform tasks, programs consisting of instruction lists are stored in memory. Individual instructions are fetched from memory into the processor for execution. Data is also stored in memory. The processor contains an ALU, control circuitry, and registers like the instruction register (IR), program counter (PC), memory address register (MAR), and memory data register (MDR). Instructions are fetched from memory based on the PC, decoded and executed, potentially accessing operands from memory via the MAR and MDR and performing operations in the ALU. Results may be written back to memory using the same process.
This document provides an overview of the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It discusses how instructions and data are stored and processed using components like the CPU, memory, arithmetic logic unit, and control unit. The document also covers concepts like pipelining and parallel processing that can improve performance, as well as differences between RISC and CISC instruction sets. It aims to explain at a high level how a computer works from an architectural perspective.
The document discusses the basic functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input, output, and control units. It describes how instructions and data are stored in memory and processed by the arithmetic logic unit. The control unit governs the transfer of information and timing within the computer. Key aspects like pipelining and increasing clock rate can improve a computer's performance by reducing the time needed to execute instructions.
The document discusses the key components of a computer system. It describes hardware components like the CPU, memory, and input/output devices. It explains that the CPU contains an ALU and control unit and uses registers for temporary storage. Memory is organized in a hierarchy from fast but small registers to larger but slower primary and secondary storage. The control unit coordinates data movement between the CPU and memory.
Basic structure of computers by aniket bhuteAniket Bhute
The document summarizes the basic structure and functional units of computers. It discusses how computers handle information through instructions and data. The main functional units that process information are the memory unit, arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), and control unit. It also describes the number representation systems used in computers, focusing on the two's complement system for signed integers. Addition and subtraction are performed through two's complement arithmetic.
The document summarizes the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It describes how a computer contains a central processing unit (CPU) that includes an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit to execute instructions. A computer also has memory to store programs and data, and input/output (I/O) devices to accept and output information. The CPU fetches instructions from memory, retrieves operands from memory or registers, performs operations in the ALU, and stores results back to memory or registers. The control unit coordinates the flow of data and execution of instructions. Performance can be improved by increasing clock speed, reducing the number of steps per instruction through pipelining and superscalar techniques, and optimizing compilers
The document summarizes key concepts about computer architecture including:
1) It describes the basic functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input and output units, and how they are connected.
2) It explains how computers handle and process information through instructions and data, and how this information is stored in memory and encoded digitally.
3) It provides details on the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, and how they work together to perform computation and control the flow of operations.
The document discusses the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It covers:
- The main functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input/output devices, and their interconnections.
- How instructions and data are represented and handled in a computer using binary encoding.
- The roles of the main memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, and registers in storing and processing instructions and data.
- Basic concepts of computer operation including fetching instructions from memory, retrieving operands, executing operations in the ALU, and storing results.
To perform tasks, programs consisting of instruction lists are stored in memory. Individual instructions are fetched from memory into the processor for execution. Data is also stored in memory. The processor contains an ALU, control circuitry, and registers like the instruction register (IR), program counter (PC), memory address register (MAR), and memory data register (MDR). Instructions are fetched from memory based on the PC, decoded and executed, potentially accessing operands from memory via the MAR and MDR and performing operations in the ALU. Results may be written back to memory using the same process.
The document discusses the functions and components of operating systems. It can be summarized as:
1. Operating systems perform important functions like efficient resource management, concurrent job processing, multi-programming, reducing response times, and improving reliability.
2. Operating systems are composed of control programs, language processors, and service programs. The control program manages jobs, processes, memory, input/output and acts as the core of the operating system.
3. Key functions of operating systems include job management using job control languages, process management using states like ready, running and waiting, and interrupt handling using mechanisms like dispatching.
The document discusses the basic functional units of a computer:
- The input unit accepts coded data from devices like keyboards.
- Memory stores programs and data, with primary storage operating at fast electronic speeds.
- The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) performs operations on data brought in from memory.
- The output unit sends processed results outside the computer to devices like printers.
- The control unit coordinates the other functional units and sequencing of operations.
The document provides an overview of basic computer organization topics including:
1. The basic structure of computers including functional units like CPU, memory, I/O devices and bus structures.
2. Computer types ranging from personal computers to supercomputers.
3. Number representation and arithmetic operations in computers like addition, subtraction using binary numbers.
4. Machine instructions, programs, and the fetch-decode-execute cycle the CPU follows to process instructions.
This document discusses different aspects of central processing unit (CPU) organization and instruction set architecture. It describes three main types of CPU organization: single register, general register, and stack. It also discusses different instruction formats including one, two, three-address formats. Additionally, it covers addressing modes such as register, direct, indirect, immediate, implied and their use in accessing operands. Finally, it briefly discusses components of a CPU like registers, ALU, control unit and their role in executing instructions.
This document outlines the learning outcomes and content covered in a course on computer systems architecture. The three learning outcomes are: 1) demonstrate understanding of low-level computer components and their operation, 2) describe the functions and features of peripheral devices and interfaces, and 3) produce a computer system specification from a given brief. Key topics covered include the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, buses, memory types, performance measurements, peripherals, interfaces, and assessments. Assessments will include short response questions to test understanding of components and open book specifications from given scenarios.
The CPU is the central processing unit that acts as the brain of the computer system. It has three main parts: the control unit that manages fetching and executing instructions, the arithmetic logic unit that performs calculations and logical operations, and registers for temporary storage of data and results. The CPU processes instructions and data to control all devices in the computer.
The document discusses the structure and components of a basic computer processor. It covers the following key points in 3 sentences:
The processor contains three main parts - the control unit, registers, and arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The control unit controls the operation of the registers and ALU. The registers store instructions and memory addresses, while the ALU performs calculations. The processor is connected to main memory and input/output devices via address, data, and control buses which transfer information between these components.
The document discusses the components and architecture of a basic computer system. It describes how a computer consists of hardware and software. The hardware includes input devices like keyboards and mice, the central processing unit (CPU) which contains the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and memory unit, and output devices like monitors and printers. The CPU acts as the brain to process instructions and data. Software includes both system software that manages the computer and application software for specific tasks. Memory in a computer system includes primary memory (RAM and ROM), secondary storage, cache memory, and registers.
The document discusses the functional components of a computer. It explains that a computer accepts input, stores data, processes data, provides output, and controls operations. It then describes each of these functions in more detail. Specifically, it notes that input involves entering data, storage saves data permanently, processing performs calculations on stored data, and output produces results. Control coordinates all internal operations. The document further breaks down the processing function among the arithmetic logical unit, control unit, and central processing unit. The arithmetic logical unit performs calculations, the control unit coordinates operations, and the central processing unit directs different parts of the computer.
The document discusses computer architecture and describes the basic components of a computer. It discusses the instruction cycle which involves fetching instructions from memory, decoding them, reading the effective address from memory, and executing the instruction. The basic computer has three types of instructions - memory reference, register reference, and input/output. Memory reference instructions refer to memory addresses and use direct or indirect addressing. Register reference instructions perform operations on registers. Input/output instructions are used for communication with external devices. The instruction cycle is then completed by fetching and executing the next instruction.
The presentation given at MSBTE sponsored content updating program on 'PC Maintenance and Troubleshooting' for Diploma Engineering teachers of Maharashtra. Venue: Government Polytechnic, Nashik Date: 17/01/2011 Session-2: Computer Organization and Architecture.
The document discusses the five main units of computer hardware: input, storage, operation, control, and output. It describes each unit's function and role, which is analogous to parts of the human body. The storage unit is divided into main storage and auxiliary storage. The document also provides details on integrated circuits, semiconductor memory including RAM and ROM, and different types of RAM and ROM.
This document discusses the basic organization and design of computers. It covers topics such as architecture versus organization, functional units like the arithmetic logic unit and control unit, instruction formats, processor registers, stored program concepts, basic operational concepts like loading and storing data, memory access, and factors that impact performance such as pipelining and instruction set design. The document provides an overview of fundamental computer hardware components and operations.
Topic 5 Digital Technique basic computer structureBai Haqi
This document provides an overview of basic computer structure and components. It discusses:
1. The main components of a computer including the CPU, memory, interface, and input/output.
2. Types of memory including ROM, RAM, static RAM, and dynamic RAM.
3. The operation of the bus system which connects the central components.
4. Single and multi-address instruction words.
5. Applications of computers in aircraft systems such as the flight management computer.
1) The document provides an overview of computer organization topics including computer types, functional units, basic operational concepts, and performance.
2) It describes the main functional units of a computer including input, memory, ALU, output, and control units. Memory is used to store programs and data in primary and secondary storage.
3) The steps of instruction execution are outlined beginning with the program counter loading the address of the first instruction and ending with it being incremented to the next one. Functional units work together under the control of the central processing unit.
The document discusses various aspects of computer system structures. It describes that a modern computer system consists of a CPU, memory, and device controllers connected through a system bus. I/O devices and the CPU can operate concurrently, with each device controller managing a specific device type. Interrupts are used to signal when I/O operations are complete. Memory is organized in a hierarchy from fastest and smallest registers to slower but larger magnetic disks. Various techniques like caching, paging and virtual memory help bridge differences in speed between CPU and I/O devices. The document also discusses hardware protection mechanisms like dual mode operation, memory protection using base and limit registers, and CPU protection using timers.
This presentation discusses various computer input, output, and storage devices. It covers common input devices like keyboards, mice, microphones, and cameras. Output devices discussed include monitors, printers, and speakers. The central processing unit and memory are also summarized, including the CPU components like the ALU and control unit. Registers in the CPU and different types of computer memory are defined.
This chapter discusses computer abstractions and technology. It covers the hardware/software interface and how high-level programs are translated to machine code. The chapter also examines different types of computers like PCs, servers, and embedded systems. It describes how computers use layers of abstraction in both hardware and software. The chapter concludes by discussing performance measures like response time and throughput, and how techniques like parallelism can improve performance within power constraints.
The document discusses the basic structure of computers including hardware, instruction set architecture, and computer organization. It defines key components like the CPU, memory, arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and input/output units. It also covers computer types, functional units, basic operations, bus structures, software, performance factors like pipelining and caching, and generations of computer technology development from vacuum tubes to integrated circuits and microprocessors.
This document provides an overview of a computer organization course syllabus and lecture notes on basic computer structure and functionality. It discusses:
1) The main functional units of a computer including input, output, memory, arithmetic logic unit, and control unit.
2) Different types of computers based on size and purpose, such as personal computers, workstations, and supercomputers.
3) How instructions are fetched and executed in a basic computer, involving fetching from memory, decoding, performing operations, and storing results.
4) Concepts like bus structure, pipelining, and RISC/CISC instruction sets that impact computer performance.
The document provides an overview of basic computer organization and performance. It discusses:
- The basic functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, and I/O.
- How programs are translated into machine instructions and executed via fetching and executing instructions in a cycle.
- Factors that determine performance like the algorithm, programming language, processor speed, and memory hierarchy.
- Techniques to improve performance like pipelining instructions and increasing processor clock rate.
This document provides information about the objectives, outcomes, and modules of a computer organization course. The course aims to explain computer subsystems and their organization, illustrate how programs are executed as machine instructions, and describe memory hierarchy and arithmetic/logical operations. It will also cover the organization of simple and pipelined processors. The course outcomes include explaining basic computer organization and demonstrating how subsystems like the processor, memory, and I/O systems function.
The document discusses the functions and components of operating systems. It can be summarized as:
1. Operating systems perform important functions like efficient resource management, concurrent job processing, multi-programming, reducing response times, and improving reliability.
2. Operating systems are composed of control programs, language processors, and service programs. The control program manages jobs, processes, memory, input/output and acts as the core of the operating system.
3. Key functions of operating systems include job management using job control languages, process management using states like ready, running and waiting, and interrupt handling using mechanisms like dispatching.
The document discusses the basic functional units of a computer:
- The input unit accepts coded data from devices like keyboards.
- Memory stores programs and data, with primary storage operating at fast electronic speeds.
- The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) performs operations on data brought in from memory.
- The output unit sends processed results outside the computer to devices like printers.
- The control unit coordinates the other functional units and sequencing of operations.
The document provides an overview of basic computer organization topics including:
1. The basic structure of computers including functional units like CPU, memory, I/O devices and bus structures.
2. Computer types ranging from personal computers to supercomputers.
3. Number representation and arithmetic operations in computers like addition, subtraction using binary numbers.
4. Machine instructions, programs, and the fetch-decode-execute cycle the CPU follows to process instructions.
This document discusses different aspects of central processing unit (CPU) organization and instruction set architecture. It describes three main types of CPU organization: single register, general register, and stack. It also discusses different instruction formats including one, two, three-address formats. Additionally, it covers addressing modes such as register, direct, indirect, immediate, implied and their use in accessing operands. Finally, it briefly discusses components of a CPU like registers, ALU, control unit and their role in executing instructions.
This document outlines the learning outcomes and content covered in a course on computer systems architecture. The three learning outcomes are: 1) demonstrate understanding of low-level computer components and their operation, 2) describe the functions and features of peripheral devices and interfaces, and 3) produce a computer system specification from a given brief. Key topics covered include the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, buses, memory types, performance measurements, peripherals, interfaces, and assessments. Assessments will include short response questions to test understanding of components and open book specifications from given scenarios.
The CPU is the central processing unit that acts as the brain of the computer system. It has three main parts: the control unit that manages fetching and executing instructions, the arithmetic logic unit that performs calculations and logical operations, and registers for temporary storage of data and results. The CPU processes instructions and data to control all devices in the computer.
The document discusses the structure and components of a basic computer processor. It covers the following key points in 3 sentences:
The processor contains three main parts - the control unit, registers, and arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The control unit controls the operation of the registers and ALU. The registers store instructions and memory addresses, while the ALU performs calculations. The processor is connected to main memory and input/output devices via address, data, and control buses which transfer information between these components.
The document discusses the components and architecture of a basic computer system. It describes how a computer consists of hardware and software. The hardware includes input devices like keyboards and mice, the central processing unit (CPU) which contains the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and memory unit, and output devices like monitors and printers. The CPU acts as the brain to process instructions and data. Software includes both system software that manages the computer and application software for specific tasks. Memory in a computer system includes primary memory (RAM and ROM), secondary storage, cache memory, and registers.
The document discusses the functional components of a computer. It explains that a computer accepts input, stores data, processes data, provides output, and controls operations. It then describes each of these functions in more detail. Specifically, it notes that input involves entering data, storage saves data permanently, processing performs calculations on stored data, and output produces results. Control coordinates all internal operations. The document further breaks down the processing function among the arithmetic logical unit, control unit, and central processing unit. The arithmetic logical unit performs calculations, the control unit coordinates operations, and the central processing unit directs different parts of the computer.
The document discusses computer architecture and describes the basic components of a computer. It discusses the instruction cycle which involves fetching instructions from memory, decoding them, reading the effective address from memory, and executing the instruction. The basic computer has three types of instructions - memory reference, register reference, and input/output. Memory reference instructions refer to memory addresses and use direct or indirect addressing. Register reference instructions perform operations on registers. Input/output instructions are used for communication with external devices. The instruction cycle is then completed by fetching and executing the next instruction.
The presentation given at MSBTE sponsored content updating program on 'PC Maintenance and Troubleshooting' for Diploma Engineering teachers of Maharashtra. Venue: Government Polytechnic, Nashik Date: 17/01/2011 Session-2: Computer Organization and Architecture.
The document discusses the five main units of computer hardware: input, storage, operation, control, and output. It describes each unit's function and role, which is analogous to parts of the human body. The storage unit is divided into main storage and auxiliary storage. The document also provides details on integrated circuits, semiconductor memory including RAM and ROM, and different types of RAM and ROM.
This document discusses the basic organization and design of computers. It covers topics such as architecture versus organization, functional units like the arithmetic logic unit and control unit, instruction formats, processor registers, stored program concepts, basic operational concepts like loading and storing data, memory access, and factors that impact performance such as pipelining and instruction set design. The document provides an overview of fundamental computer hardware components and operations.
Topic 5 Digital Technique basic computer structureBai Haqi
This document provides an overview of basic computer structure and components. It discusses:
1. The main components of a computer including the CPU, memory, interface, and input/output.
2. Types of memory including ROM, RAM, static RAM, and dynamic RAM.
3. The operation of the bus system which connects the central components.
4. Single and multi-address instruction words.
5. Applications of computers in aircraft systems such as the flight management computer.
1) The document provides an overview of computer organization topics including computer types, functional units, basic operational concepts, and performance.
2) It describes the main functional units of a computer including input, memory, ALU, output, and control units. Memory is used to store programs and data in primary and secondary storage.
3) The steps of instruction execution are outlined beginning with the program counter loading the address of the first instruction and ending with it being incremented to the next one. Functional units work together under the control of the central processing unit.
The document discusses various aspects of computer system structures. It describes that a modern computer system consists of a CPU, memory, and device controllers connected through a system bus. I/O devices and the CPU can operate concurrently, with each device controller managing a specific device type. Interrupts are used to signal when I/O operations are complete. Memory is organized in a hierarchy from fastest and smallest registers to slower but larger magnetic disks. Various techniques like caching, paging and virtual memory help bridge differences in speed between CPU and I/O devices. The document also discusses hardware protection mechanisms like dual mode operation, memory protection using base and limit registers, and CPU protection using timers.
This presentation discusses various computer input, output, and storage devices. It covers common input devices like keyboards, mice, microphones, and cameras. Output devices discussed include monitors, printers, and speakers. The central processing unit and memory are also summarized, including the CPU components like the ALU and control unit. Registers in the CPU and different types of computer memory are defined.
This chapter discusses computer abstractions and technology. It covers the hardware/software interface and how high-level programs are translated to machine code. The chapter also examines different types of computers like PCs, servers, and embedded systems. It describes how computers use layers of abstraction in both hardware and software. The chapter concludes by discussing performance measures like response time and throughput, and how techniques like parallelism can improve performance within power constraints.
The document discusses the basic structure of computers including hardware, instruction set architecture, and computer organization. It defines key components like the CPU, memory, arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and input/output units. It also covers computer types, functional units, basic operations, bus structures, software, performance factors like pipelining and caching, and generations of computer technology development from vacuum tubes to integrated circuits and microprocessors.
This document provides an overview of a computer organization course syllabus and lecture notes on basic computer structure and functionality. It discusses:
1) The main functional units of a computer including input, output, memory, arithmetic logic unit, and control unit.
2) Different types of computers based on size and purpose, such as personal computers, workstations, and supercomputers.
3) How instructions are fetched and executed in a basic computer, involving fetching from memory, decoding, performing operations, and storing results.
4) Concepts like bus structure, pipelining, and RISC/CISC instruction sets that impact computer performance.
The document provides an overview of basic computer organization and performance. It discusses:
- The basic functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, and I/O.
- How programs are translated into machine instructions and executed via fetching and executing instructions in a cycle.
- Factors that determine performance like the algorithm, programming language, processor speed, and memory hierarchy.
- Techniques to improve performance like pipelining instructions and increasing processor clock rate.
This document provides information about the objectives, outcomes, and modules of a computer organization course. The course aims to explain computer subsystems and their organization, illustrate how programs are executed as machine instructions, and describe memory hierarchy and arithmetic/logical operations. It will also cover the organization of simple and pipelined processors. The course outcomes include explaining basic computer organization and demonstrating how subsystems like the processor, memory, and I/O systems function.
The document summarizes the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It describes how a computer contains a central processing unit (CPU) that includes an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit to execute instructions. A computer also has memory to store programs and data, and input/output (I/O) devices to accept and deliver information. The CPU fetches instructions from memory, retrieves operands from memory or registers, performs operations in the ALU, and stores results back to memory or registers. The control unit coordinates the flow of data and execution of instructions. Performance can be improved by increasing clock speed, reducing the number of steps per instruction through pipelining and superscalar techniques, and optimizing compilers
The document provides information about computer organization and machine instructions. It discusses the basic structure of computers including functional units like the ALU, control unit, and memory. It describes how instructions are executed through fetching from memory, decoding, accessing operands from registers or memory, performing operations, and storing results. The document also discusses addressing methods, instruction formats, and factors that influence performance such as clock rate and the number of instructions.
The document discusses different types of computers and their basic structure and functioning. It begins by classifying computers into categories like microcomputers, laptops, workstations, supercomputers, and more. It then explains the functional units of a computer including the input, output, memory, arithmetic logic, and control units. Finally, it covers various performance metrics for computers like clock rate, pipelining, superscalar operations, and differences between RISC and CISC instruction sets.
This document provides an overview of basic computer organization and structure. It discusses:
1. The five main functional units of a computer: input, memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), output, and control unit. Memory can be primary or secondary.
2. How instructions and data are processed by fetching from memory to the instruction register and ALU for execution before storing results back in memory.
3. Performance considerations like clock rate, pipelining, and instruction set design (CISC vs RISC) that influence the number of clock cycles needed per instruction.
The document provides an overview of basic computer components and operations. It discusses the functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input and output devices. It describes the different types of information handled by a computer including instructions, data, and programs. It explains the roles of the memory unit, arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and processor in computer operations. It also covers number representation systems, binary addition and subtraction, and basic performance concepts.
The document provides an overview of basic computer components and operations. It discusses the functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input and output devices. It describes the different types of information handled by a computer including instructions, data, and programs. It explains the roles of the memory unit, arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and processor in computer operations. It also covers number representation systems, binary addition and subtraction, and basic performance concepts.
The document provides an overview of basic computer components and operations. It discusses the functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input and output devices. It describes the different types of information handled by a computer including instructions, data, and programs. It explains the roles of the main memory, arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and registers. It also covers basic concepts such as number representation, machine instructions, assembly language, and performance measurement.
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data as input, processes it according to programmed instructions, and produces output. It has four main functions: accepting input data, processing the data, producing output, and storing results. A computer uses programs made of instructions stored in its memory to process data and perform tasks.
Ise iv-computer organization [10 cs46]-notes newdilshad begum
This document outlines the course structure and content for a Computer Organization course. The course is divided into 8 units that cover topics such as basic computer structure, machine instructions, input/output organization, memory systems, arithmetic, processing units, and multicore/multiprocessor systems. Key concepts covered include computer components, bus structures, performance measurement, instruction execution, interrupts, memory hierarchies, and parallel architectures. The course aims to provide students with an understanding of how computer systems are designed and operate at the hardware level.
Computer Organization and Architechuture basicsLucky Sithole
This document provides an overview of basic computer organization and design. It discusses the differences between architecture and organization, the main functional units of a computer including the arithmetic logic unit and control unit. It also describes the instruction set, processor registers including the program counter and memory address register. The document outlines the basic operational concepts such as instruction format and memory access. It discusses performance factors like pipelining and superscalar operation. Finally, it compares CISC and RISC organizations and the role of compilers in improving performance.
The document introduces basic computer concepts including hardware, software, and the components that make up a computer system. It describes different types of computers and their components like the CPU, memory, buses, input/output devices. It also discusses low-level machine instructions and assembly language versus high-level programming languages.
chapter 1 -Basic Structure of Computers.pptxjanani603976
The document describes the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It discusses how computers handle instructions and data through components like the processor, memory unit, arithmetic logic unit, and control unit. Instructions are stored in memory and direct the flow of information within the computer. The core operations of a computer involve accepting programs and data as input, processing the information in the processor according to instructions, and outputting the results.
The document discusses computer organization and architecture. It defines architecture as the instruction set, registers, and addressing modes visible to programmers, while organization refers to internal design details like caching and pipelining. It describes the basic functional units of a computer including I/O, memory, arithmetic logic, and control units. It explains the fetch-execute cycle and how instructions are stored and executed from memory. Pipelining and superscalar techniques are discussed to improve processor performance.
The document provides an overview of system programming and system software. It discusses key components of system software like assemblers, loaders, macros, compilers, and operating systems. It describes the evolution of operating systems from simple monitors and batch systems to time-sharing, distributed, and real-time operating systems. It also outlines the typical machine structure of a computer system, including components like the CPU, memory, registers, and I/O channels.
The document provides information about the key components and architecture of computers. It discusses:
- The main components of a computer including the central processing unit (CPU), memory, and input/output devices. The CPU contains an arithmetic logic unit and program control unit.
- How digital computers represent and process information using binary digits (bits) representing 0s and 1s.
- Computer organization and architecture, and how they are concerned with how hardware components are connected and structured.
- The evolution of early computers from mechanical to electronic stored-program computers like the ENIAC, EDVAC, and IAS machine.
The document discusses the basic structure of computers, explaining that they consist of five main units: input, memory, arithmetic and logic, output, and control. It describes the functions of each unit and how they work together, with the memory storing instructions and data, the arithmetic and logic unit performing operations, and the control unit coordinating everything. The document also provides details on memory types, addressing, bus structures, and how instructions are fetched and executed through the interaction of the processor and memory.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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2. Overview
The basic structure of a computer
Machine instructions and their execution
System software that enables the preparation
and execution of programs
Performance issues in computer systems
The history of computer development
3. Computer Types
What is a digital computer, or computer?
A contemporary computer is a fast electronic calculating machine
that accepts digitized input information, process it according to a list
of internally stored instructions, and produces the resulting output
information.
Many types of computers exist that differ widely in
size, cost, computational power, and intended use:
Personal computers – desktop, notebook
Workstations – high-resolution graphics input/output capability,
more computational power, reliability…
Enterprise systems (mainframes) and servers – much more
computing power and storage capacity, accessible via internet
Supercomputers – large-scale numerical calculations
5. Functional Units
Arithmetic
Input and
logic
Memory
Output Control
I/O Processor
Figure 1.1. Basic functional units of a computer.
6. Information Handled by a
Computer
Instructions/machine instructions
Govern the transfer of information within a computer as well as
between the computer and its I/O devices
Specify the arithmetic and logic operations to be performed
Program
Data
Used as operands by the instructions
Source program
Encoded in binary code – 0 and 1
ASCII and EBCDIC
7. Memory Unit
Storeprograms and data
Two classes of storage
Primary storage
Fast
Programs must be stored in memory while they are being executed
Large number of semiconductor storage cells
Processed in words
Address
RAM and memory access time
Memory hierarchy – cache, main memory
Secondary storage – larger and cheaper
8. Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU)
Most computer operations are executed in
ALU of the processor.
Load the operands into memory – bring them
to the processor – perform operation in ALU
– store the result back to memory or retain in
the processor.
Registers
Fast control of ALU
9. Control Unit
All computer operations are controlled by the control
unit.
The timing signals that govern the I/O transfers are
also generated by the control unit.
Control unit is usually distributed throughout the
machine instead of standing alone.
Operations of a computer:
Accept information in the form of programs and data through an
input unit and store it in the memory
Fetch the information stored in the memory, under program control,
into an ALU, where the information is processed
Output the processed information through an output unit
Control all activities inside the machine through a control unit
11. Review
Activity in a computer is governed by instructions.
To perform a task, an appropriate program
consisting of a list of instructions is stored in the
memory.
Individual instructions are brought from the memory
into the processor, which executes the specified
operations.
Data to be used as operands are also stored in the
memory.
12. A Typical Instruction
Add LOCA, R0
Add the operand at memory location LOCA to the
operand in a register R0 in the processor.
Place the sum into register R0.
The original contents of LOCA are preserved.
The original contents of R0 is overwritten.
Instruction is fetched from the memory into the
processor – the operand at LOCA is fetched and
added to the contents of R0 – the resulting sum is
stored in register R0.
13. Separate Memory Access and
ALU Operation
Load LOCA, R1
Add R1, R0
Whose contents will be overwritten?
14. Connection Between the
Processor and the Memory
Memory
MAR MDR
Control
PC R0
R1
Processor
IR
ALU
Rn 1
n general purpose
registers
Figure 1.2. Connections between the processor and the memory.
15. Registers
Instruction
register (IR)
Program counter (PC)
General-purpose register (R – R )
0 n-1
Memory address register (MAR)
Memory data register (MDR)
16. Typical Operating Steps
Programs reside in the memory through input
devices
PC is set to point to the first instruction
The contents of PC are transferred to MAR
A Read signal is sent to the memory
The first instruction is read out and loaded
into MDR
The contents of MDR are transferred to IR
Decode and execute the instruction
17. Typical Operating Steps
(Cont’)
Get operands for ALU
General-purpose register
Memory (address to MAR – Read – MDR to ALU)
Perform operation in ALU
Store the result back
To general-purpose register
To memory (address to MAR, result to MDR – Write)
During the execution, PC is incremented to
the next instruction
18. Interrupt
Normal execution of programs may be preempted if
some device requires urgent servicing.
The normal execution of the current program must
be interrupted – the device raises an interrupt
signal.
Interrupt-service routine
Current system information backup and restore (PC,
general-purpose registers, control information,
specific information)
19. Bus Structures
There are many ways to connect different
parts inside a computer together.
A group of lines that serves as a connecting
path for several devices is called a bus.
Address/data/control
21. Speed Issue
Different devices have different
transfer/operate speed.
If the speed of bus is bounded by the slowest
device connected to it, the efficiency will be
very low.
How to solve this?
A common approach – use buffers.
22. Software
System software must be in the memory in order for
a user to enter and run an application program on a
computer
Receiving and interpreting user commands
Entering and editing application programs and storing them as files
in secondary storage devices
Managing the storage and retrieval of files in secondary storage
devices
Running standard application programs
Controlling I/O units to receive input information and produce output
results
Translating programs form source form prepared by the user into
object form consisting of machine instructions
Linking and running user-written application programs with existing
standard library routines
23. Software
Application programs are usually written in a
high-level programming language.
Compiler translates the high-level language
program into a suitable machine language
program.
Text editor
24. Operating System (OS)
A large program used to control the sharing
of and interaction among various computer
units as they execute application programs.
Assign computer resources to individual
application programs
Memory
Disk space
Move data
Handle I/O
25. OS Routine Example
Example: one processor, one disk, and one
printer.
Program is stored on disk
Transfer program into memory
Execute program
Need to read a data file on disk into memory
Calculation
Print results
26. OS Routine Example
Printer
Disk
OS
routines
Program
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
Time
Figure 1.4. Figure 1.4. User program and OS routine sharing of the processor. processor.
User program and OS routine sharing of the
28. Performance
The most important measure of a computer is
how quickly it can execute programs.
Three factors affect performance:
Hardware design
Instruction set
Compiler
29. Performance
Processor time to execute a program depends on the hardware
involved in the execution of individual machine instructions.
Main Cache
memory memory Processor
Bus
Figure 1.5. The processor cache.
30. Performance
The processor and a relatively small cache
memory can be fabricated on a single
integrated circuit chip.
Speed
Cost
Memory management
31. Processor Clock
Clock, clock cycle, and clock rate
The execution of each instruction is divided
into several steps, each of which completes
in one clock cycle.
Hertz – cycles per second
32. Basic Performance Equation
T – processor time required to execute a program than has been
prepared in high-level language
N – number of actual machine language instructions needed to
complete the execution (note: loop)
S – average number of basic steps needed to execute one
machine instruction. Each step completes in one clock cycle
R – clock rate
Note: these are not independent to each other
N×S
T=
R
How to improve T?
33. Pipeline and Superscalar
Operation
Instructions are not necessarily executed one after
another.
The value of S doesn’t have to be the number of
clock cycles to execute one instruction.
Pipelining – overlapping the execution of successive
instructions.
Add R1, R2, R3
Superscalar operation – multiple instruction
pipelines are implemented in the processor.
Goal – reduce S (could become <1!)
34. Clock Rate
Increase clock rate
Improve the integrated-circuit (IC) technology to make
the circuits faster
Reduce the amount of processing done in one basic step
(however, this may increase the number of basic steps
needed)
Increases in R that are entirely caused by
improvements in IC technology affect all
aspects of the processor’s operation equally
except the time to access the main memory.
35. CISC and RISC
Tradeoffbetween N and S
A key consideration is the use of pipelining
S is close to 1 even though the number of basic steps
per instruction may be considerably larger
It is much easier to implement efficient pipelining in
processor with simple instruction sets
Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)
Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)
36. Compiler
A compiler translates a high-level language program
into a sequence of machine instructions.
To reduce N, we need a suitable machine
instruction set and a compiler that makes good use
of it.
Goal – reduce N×S
A compiler may not be designed for a specific
processor; however, a high-quality compiler is
usually designed for, and with, a specific processor.
37. Performance Measurement
T is difficult to compute.
Measure computer performance using benchmark programs.
System Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC) selects and
publishes representative application programs for different application
domains, together with test results for many commercially available
computers.
Compile and run (no simulation)
Reference computer
Running time on the reference computer
SPEC rating =
Running time on the computer under test
n 1
SPEC rating = (∏SPECi ) n
i =1
38. Multiprocessors and
Multicomputers
Multiprocessor computer
Execute a number of different application tasks in parallel
Execute subtasks of a single large task in parallel
All processors have access to all of the memory – shared-memory
multiprocessor
Cost – processors, memory units, complex interconnection networks
Multicomputers
Each computer only have access to its own memory
Exchange message via a communication network – message-
passing multicomputers