The document discusses computer organization and architecture. It defines architecture as the instruction set, registers, and addressing modes visible to programmers, while organization refers to internal design details like caching and pipelining. It describes the basic functional units of a computer including I/O, memory, arithmetic logic, and control units. It explains the fetch-execute cycle and how instructions are stored and executed from memory. Pipelining and superscalar techniques are discussed to improve processor performance.
This document discusses the basic organization and design of computers. It covers topics such as architecture versus organization, functional units like the arithmetic logic unit and control unit, instruction formats, processor registers, stored program concepts, basic operational concepts like loading and storing data, memory access, and factors that impact performance such as pipelining and instruction set design. The document provides an overview of fundamental computer hardware components and operations.
Computer Organization and Architechuture basicsLucky Sithole
This document provides an overview of basic computer organization and design. It discusses the differences between architecture and organization, the main functional units of a computer including the arithmetic logic unit and control unit. It also describes the instruction set, processor registers including the program counter and memory address register. The document outlines the basic operational concepts such as instruction format and memory access. It discusses performance factors like pipelining and superscalar operation. Finally, it compares CISC and RISC organizations and the role of compilers in improving performance.
chapter 1 -Basic Structure of Computers.pptxjanani603976
The document describes the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It discusses how computers handle instructions and data through components like the processor, memory unit, arithmetic logic unit, and control unit. Instructions are stored in memory and direct the flow of information within the computer. The core operations of a computer involve accepting programs and data as input, processing the information in the processor according to instructions, and outputting the results.
The document summarizes key concepts about computer organization and performance:
1. A typical computer instruction involves fetching an instruction from memory, reading operands from registers or memory, performing operations in the ALU, and writing results back to registers. The processor contains registers like the program counter, instruction register, and general purpose registers.
2. Performance is affected by the processor clock speed, instruction type, memory access time, and I/O devices. Key measures are elapsed time to execute a program and processor time spent actively executing instructions.
3. Multiple bus structures can improve concurrency but increase costs compared to single bus structures that are simpler but can become bottlenecks with many devices.
The document provides an introduction to the course on computer organization and architecture. It discusses key concepts like:
- Where data is stored, processed, and displayed in a computer.
- Computer architecture deals with the functional behavior and design implementation of computer systems. Computer organization deals with the structural relationships and utilization within a computer system.
- The document outlines the syllabus which will cover topics like basic computer structure, memory systems, arithmetic and logical operations, and parallel processing techniques like pipelining and vector processing.
- Performance is a key measure of computers and depends on factors like hardware design, instruction set, and compiler optimizations. Processor clock rate and the basic performance equation are discussed as measures of a computer's
The document provides an overview of basic computer components and operations. It discusses the functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input and output devices. It describes the different types of information handled by a computer including instructions, data, and programs. It explains the roles of the memory unit, arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and processor in computer operations. It also covers number representation systems, binary addition and subtraction, and basic performance concepts.
The document provides an overview of basic computer components and operations. It discusses the functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input and output devices. It describes the different types of information handled by a computer including instructions, data, and programs. It explains the roles of the memory unit, arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and processor in computer operations. It also covers number representation systems, binary addition and subtraction, and basic performance concepts.
The document provides an overview of basic computer components and operations. It discusses the functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input and output devices. It describes the different types of information handled by a computer including instructions, data, and programs. It explains the roles of the main memory, arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and registers. It also covers basic concepts such as number representation, machine instructions, assembly language, and performance measurement.
This document discusses the basic organization and design of computers. It covers topics such as architecture versus organization, functional units like the arithmetic logic unit and control unit, instruction formats, processor registers, stored program concepts, basic operational concepts like loading and storing data, memory access, and factors that impact performance such as pipelining and instruction set design. The document provides an overview of fundamental computer hardware components and operations.
Computer Organization and Architechuture basicsLucky Sithole
This document provides an overview of basic computer organization and design. It discusses the differences between architecture and organization, the main functional units of a computer including the arithmetic logic unit and control unit. It also describes the instruction set, processor registers including the program counter and memory address register. The document outlines the basic operational concepts such as instruction format and memory access. It discusses performance factors like pipelining and superscalar operation. Finally, it compares CISC and RISC organizations and the role of compilers in improving performance.
chapter 1 -Basic Structure of Computers.pptxjanani603976
The document describes the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It discusses how computers handle instructions and data through components like the processor, memory unit, arithmetic logic unit, and control unit. Instructions are stored in memory and direct the flow of information within the computer. The core operations of a computer involve accepting programs and data as input, processing the information in the processor according to instructions, and outputting the results.
The document summarizes key concepts about computer organization and performance:
1. A typical computer instruction involves fetching an instruction from memory, reading operands from registers or memory, performing operations in the ALU, and writing results back to registers. The processor contains registers like the program counter, instruction register, and general purpose registers.
2. Performance is affected by the processor clock speed, instruction type, memory access time, and I/O devices. Key measures are elapsed time to execute a program and processor time spent actively executing instructions.
3. Multiple bus structures can improve concurrency but increase costs compared to single bus structures that are simpler but can become bottlenecks with many devices.
The document provides an introduction to the course on computer organization and architecture. It discusses key concepts like:
- Where data is stored, processed, and displayed in a computer.
- Computer architecture deals with the functional behavior and design implementation of computer systems. Computer organization deals with the structural relationships and utilization within a computer system.
- The document outlines the syllabus which will cover topics like basic computer structure, memory systems, arithmetic and logical operations, and parallel processing techniques like pipelining and vector processing.
- Performance is a key measure of computers and depends on factors like hardware design, instruction set, and compiler optimizations. Processor clock rate and the basic performance equation are discussed as measures of a computer's
The document provides an overview of basic computer components and operations. It discusses the functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input and output devices. It describes the different types of information handled by a computer including instructions, data, and programs. It explains the roles of the memory unit, arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and processor in computer operations. It also covers number representation systems, binary addition and subtraction, and basic performance concepts.
The document provides an overview of basic computer components and operations. It discusses the functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input and output devices. It describes the different types of information handled by a computer including instructions, data, and programs. It explains the roles of the memory unit, arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and processor in computer operations. It also covers number representation systems, binary addition and subtraction, and basic performance concepts.
The document provides an overview of basic computer components and operations. It discusses the functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input and output devices. It describes the different types of information handled by a computer including instructions, data, and programs. It explains the roles of the main memory, arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and registers. It also covers basic concepts such as number representation, machine instructions, assembly language, and performance measurement.
The document discusses computer architecture and describes the basic components of a computer. It discusses the instruction cycle which involves fetching instructions from memory, decoding them, reading the effective address from memory, and executing the instruction. The basic computer has three types of instructions - memory reference, register reference, and input/output. Memory reference instructions refer to memory addresses and use direct or indirect addressing. Register reference instructions perform operations on registers. Input/output instructions are used for communication with external devices. The instruction cycle is then completed by fetching and executing the next instruction.
Bca 2nd sem-u-2.2-overview of register transfer, micro operations and basic c...Rai University
This document provides an overview of register transfer level operations, microoperations, and basic computer organization and design. It discusses the concepts of programs, instructions, and how instructions are executed. It then describes the main components of a computer at a high level, including the CPU, memory, and I/O. It explains the CPU registers used in the Mano model and how instruction processing requires multiple clock cycles. The timing and control of instruction execution is discussed along with the instruction set and categories of instructions.
The document summarizes key concepts about computer architecture including:
1) It describes the basic functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input and output units, and how they are connected.
2) It explains how computers handle and process information through instructions and data, and how this information is stored in memory and encoded digitally.
3) It provides details on the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, and how they work together to perform computation and control the flow of operations.
The CPU executes instructions by fetching them from memory, decoding and executing them in a cycle. It has an ALU for arithmetic and logical operations, registers for data, an instruction register, program counter and control unit. There are three main types of instructions - arithmetic/logical, memory transfer, and branch. The fetch-execute cycle involves fetching the instruction from memory into the instruction register based on the program counter, decoding it, executing it by performing the appropriate operation, and updating the program counter.
B.sc cs-ii-u-2.2-overview of register transfer, micro operations and basic co...Rai University
This document provides an overview of register transfer, micro operations, and basic computer organization and design. It discusses what a computer is, programs, instructions, and how instructions are executed. It describes the CPU, memory, and bus architecture. It explains registers in the CPU, including the program counter, address register, instruction register, and others. It discusses stored programs, instruction architecture, addressing modes, and the instruction hierarchy and set. It also covers instruction processing, the instruction cycle, timing and control, and how programs are executed through a sequence of microoperations.
MCA-I-COA- overview of register transfer, micro operations and basic computer...Rai University
This document provides an overview of register transfer, micro operations, and basic computer organization and design. It discusses the key concepts of a stored program, instructions, and how instructions are executed through an instruction cycle that involves fetching, decoding, and executing instructions via a sequence of microoperations controlled by a sequence counter register. It also describes the register architecture and instruction set of the Mano computer model, which uses a basic set of registers and a hierarchical 1+3 bit instruction format to support 25 instructions for arithmetic, logic, data movement, program control, and I/O operations.
The document provides information about the Computer Organization and Architecture course for the 4th semester at Laxmi Institute of Technology, Sarigam. It includes details about the subject code, units covered, topics to be covered like instruction codes, computer registers, and instruction cycle. It also summarizes the basic computer model used including registers like program counter, address register, data register, accumulator, and common bus system. Memory-reference and register-reference instruction formats are defined along with the instruction set and control unit organization.
The document provides historical context and technical details about microprocessors:
- Ted Hoff at Intel pioneered the concept of the microprocessor in the early 1970s with the Intel 4004, the first commercial microprocessor containing 2,300 transistors.
- The microprocessor is a programmable device that takes in data, performs arithmetic and logical operations according to instructions stored in memory, and outputs results. It reads binary instructions from memory to process data.
- The typical components of a programmable machine using a microprocessor are the microprocessor itself, input and output devices, and memory to store instructions and data. The microprocessor acts as the central processing unit (CPU) and communicates with memory and I
1) The document provides an overview of computer organization topics including computer types, functional units, basic operational concepts, and performance.
2) It describes the main functional units of a computer including input, memory, ALU, output, and control units. Memory is used to store programs and data in primary and secondary storage.
3) The steps of instruction execution are outlined beginning with the program counter loading the address of the first instruction and ending with it being incremented to the next one. Functional units work together under the control of the central processing unit.
Basic structure of computers by aniket bhuteAniket Bhute
The document summarizes the basic structure and functional units of computers. It discusses how computers handle information through instructions and data. The main functional units that process information are the memory unit, arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), and control unit. It also describes the number representation systems used in computers, focusing on the two's complement system for signed integers. Addition and subtraction are performed through two's complement arithmetic.
The document discusses the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It covers:
- The main functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input/output devices, and their interconnections.
- How instructions and data are represented and handled in a computer using binary encoding.
- The roles of the main memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, and registers in storing and processing instructions and data.
- Basic concepts of computer operation including fetching instructions from memory, retrieving operands, executing operations in the ALU, and storing results.
The document summarizes the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It describes how a computer contains a central processing unit (CPU) that includes an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit to execute instructions. A computer also has memory to store programs and data, and input/output (I/O) devices to accept and output information. The CPU fetches instructions from memory, retrieves operands from memory or registers, performs operations in the ALU, and stores results back to memory or registers. The control unit coordinates the flow of data and execution of instructions. Performance can be improved by increasing clock speed, reducing the number of steps per instruction through pipelining and superscalar techniques, and optimizing compilers
The document summarizes the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It describes how a computer contains a central processing unit (CPU) that includes an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit to execute instructions. A computer also has memory to store programs and data, and input/output (I/O) devices to accept and deliver information. The CPU fetches instructions from memory, retrieves operands from memory or registers, performs operations in the ALU, and stores results back to memory or registers. The control unit coordinates the flow of data and execution of instructions. Performance can be improved by increasing clock speed, reducing the number of steps per instruction through pipelining and superscalar techniques, and optimizing compilers
Basic Structure of Computers: Functional Units, Basic Operational Concepts, B...Abhishekn84
An implementation for one bit of register Ri is shown in Figure. A two-input multiplexer is used to select the data applied to the input of an edge-triggered D flip-flop. When the control input Riin is equal to 1, the multiplexer selects the data on the bus. This data will be loaded into the flip-flop at the rising edge of the clock. When Riin is equal to 0, the multiplexer feeds back the value currently stored in the flip-flop To study these operations in detail, let us examine the internal organization of the processor. The main building blocks of a processor are interconnected in a variety of ways. A very simple organization is shown in above figure more complex structure that provides high performance will be presented at the end.
Figure shows an organization in which the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and all the registers are interconnected through a single common bus, which is internal to the processor. The data and address lines of the external memory bus are shown in figure connected to the internal processor bus via the memory data register, MDR, and the memory address register, MAR, respectively. Register MDR has two inputs and two outputs.
Data may be loaded into MDR either from the memory bus or from the internal processor bus. The data stored in MDR may be placed on either bus. The input of MAR is connected to the internal bus, and its output is connected to the external bus. The control lines of the memory bus are connected to the instruction decoder and control logic block. This unit is responsible for issuing the signals that control the operation of all the units inside the processor and for interacting with the memory bus.
To study these operations in detail, let us examine the internal organization of the processor. The main building blocks of a processor are interconnected in a variety of ways. A very simple organization is shown in above figure more complex structure that provides high performance will be presented at the end.
Figure shows an organization in which the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and all the registers are interconnected through a single common bus, which is internal to the processor. The data and address lines of the external memory bus are shown in figure connected to the internal processor bus via the memory data register, MDR, and the memory address register, MAR, respectively. Register MDR has two inputs and two outputs.
Data may be loaded into MDR either from the memory bus or from the internal processor bus. The data stored in MDR may be placed on either bus. The input of MAR is connected to the internal bus, and its output is connected to the external bus. The control lines of the memory bus are connected to the instruction decoder and control logic block. This unit is responsible for issuing the signals that control the operation of all the units inside the processor and for interacting with the memory bus.To study these operations in detail, let us examine the internal organization of the
The document discusses different types of computers and their basic structure and functioning. It begins by classifying computers into categories like microcomputers, laptops, workstations, supercomputers, and more. It then explains the functional units of a computer including the input, output, memory, arithmetic logic, and control units. Finally, it covers various performance metrics for computers like clock rate, pipelining, superscalar operations, and differences between RISC and CISC instruction sets.
The document discusses the components inside a CPU. It describes the motherboard, power supply, cooling fan, and drive bays that are inside the computer case. On the motherboard are the system clock, microprocessor, memory, chipset, and input/output buses. The CPU is made up of a control unit, instruction unit with ALU and FPU, registers, caches, and buses that connect the components. Common CPU components like the clock, control unit, and cache are also explained in detail.
This document provides information about the objectives, outcomes, and modules of a computer organization course. The course aims to explain computer subsystems and their organization, illustrate how programs are executed as machine instructions, and describe memory hierarchy and arithmetic/logical operations. It will also cover the organization of simple and pipelined processors. The course outcomes include explaining basic computer organization and demonstrating how subsystems like the processor, memory, and I/O systems function.
1) Embedded systems are computing systems that perform dedicated functions. They contain a processor, memory, and input/output components on a single chip or board.
2) There are two main implementations of embedded systems - system on chip (SOC) and system board (SB). SOC is cheaper and uses less power, while SB is more costly but allows for higher performance.
3) Microcontrollers are a type of SOC that contain a CPU, memory, and input/output control on a single chip. They are dedicated to specific tasks and commonly interface with sensors, switches, LEDs and other components.
This document discusses general-purpose processors. It begins by introducing general-purpose processors and their basic architecture, which consists of a control unit and datapath that is designed to perform a variety of computation tasks. It then describes the operations of loading, storing, and arithmetic/logical operations that can be performed by the datapath. Subsequent sections provide more details on the control unit and how it sequences operations, instruction cycles, architectural considerations like bit-width and clock frequency, and techniques for improving performance like pipelining and superscalar execution. The document concludes with sections on assembly-level instructions and programmer considerations.
The document discusses the Von Neumann architecture and stored program concept. It describes how John Von Neumann proposed storing both computer instructions and data in memory. This became known as the Von Neumann model, where the central processing unit can fetch both instructions and data from memory to execute programs. It established the basic structure of having a memory, processing unit, and control unit that orchestrates instruction execution in a fetch-execute cycle that is still used in modern computers.
This document provides an overview of an Artificial Intelligence course. The key learning outcomes are knowledge of AI concepts like search, game playing, knowledge representation, planning, and machine learning. Students will also develop intellectual skills to synthesize solutions and evaluate alternatives, and practical skills to use Prolog and construct simple AI systems. The course will cover topics in search, knowledge representation, planning, machine learning, logic, expert systems, robotics, natural language processing, and their dependencies. Students are expected to attend lectures and supplement with textbook reading.
This presentation provides an overview of machine learning, including its history, definitions, applications and algorithms. It begins with early work in the 1950s and discusses modern definitions of machine learning as systems that improve with experience. The presentation outlines key concepts like training and testing data, performance factors and common algorithm types for supervised, unsupervised and semi-supervised learning. It concludes that machine learning will become increasingly important in many domains from multimedia to economics.
The document discusses computer architecture and describes the basic components of a computer. It discusses the instruction cycle which involves fetching instructions from memory, decoding them, reading the effective address from memory, and executing the instruction. The basic computer has three types of instructions - memory reference, register reference, and input/output. Memory reference instructions refer to memory addresses and use direct or indirect addressing. Register reference instructions perform operations on registers. Input/output instructions are used for communication with external devices. The instruction cycle is then completed by fetching and executing the next instruction.
Bca 2nd sem-u-2.2-overview of register transfer, micro operations and basic c...Rai University
This document provides an overview of register transfer level operations, microoperations, and basic computer organization and design. It discusses the concepts of programs, instructions, and how instructions are executed. It then describes the main components of a computer at a high level, including the CPU, memory, and I/O. It explains the CPU registers used in the Mano model and how instruction processing requires multiple clock cycles. The timing and control of instruction execution is discussed along with the instruction set and categories of instructions.
The document summarizes key concepts about computer architecture including:
1) It describes the basic functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input and output units, and how they are connected.
2) It explains how computers handle and process information through instructions and data, and how this information is stored in memory and encoded digitally.
3) It provides details on the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, and how they work together to perform computation and control the flow of operations.
The CPU executes instructions by fetching them from memory, decoding and executing them in a cycle. It has an ALU for arithmetic and logical operations, registers for data, an instruction register, program counter and control unit. There are three main types of instructions - arithmetic/logical, memory transfer, and branch. The fetch-execute cycle involves fetching the instruction from memory into the instruction register based on the program counter, decoding it, executing it by performing the appropriate operation, and updating the program counter.
B.sc cs-ii-u-2.2-overview of register transfer, micro operations and basic co...Rai University
This document provides an overview of register transfer, micro operations, and basic computer organization and design. It discusses what a computer is, programs, instructions, and how instructions are executed. It describes the CPU, memory, and bus architecture. It explains registers in the CPU, including the program counter, address register, instruction register, and others. It discusses stored programs, instruction architecture, addressing modes, and the instruction hierarchy and set. It also covers instruction processing, the instruction cycle, timing and control, and how programs are executed through a sequence of microoperations.
MCA-I-COA- overview of register transfer, micro operations and basic computer...Rai University
This document provides an overview of register transfer, micro operations, and basic computer organization and design. It discusses the key concepts of a stored program, instructions, and how instructions are executed through an instruction cycle that involves fetching, decoding, and executing instructions via a sequence of microoperations controlled by a sequence counter register. It also describes the register architecture and instruction set of the Mano computer model, which uses a basic set of registers and a hierarchical 1+3 bit instruction format to support 25 instructions for arithmetic, logic, data movement, program control, and I/O operations.
The document provides information about the Computer Organization and Architecture course for the 4th semester at Laxmi Institute of Technology, Sarigam. It includes details about the subject code, units covered, topics to be covered like instruction codes, computer registers, and instruction cycle. It also summarizes the basic computer model used including registers like program counter, address register, data register, accumulator, and common bus system. Memory-reference and register-reference instruction formats are defined along with the instruction set and control unit organization.
The document provides historical context and technical details about microprocessors:
- Ted Hoff at Intel pioneered the concept of the microprocessor in the early 1970s with the Intel 4004, the first commercial microprocessor containing 2,300 transistors.
- The microprocessor is a programmable device that takes in data, performs arithmetic and logical operations according to instructions stored in memory, and outputs results. It reads binary instructions from memory to process data.
- The typical components of a programmable machine using a microprocessor are the microprocessor itself, input and output devices, and memory to store instructions and data. The microprocessor acts as the central processing unit (CPU) and communicates with memory and I
1) The document provides an overview of computer organization topics including computer types, functional units, basic operational concepts, and performance.
2) It describes the main functional units of a computer including input, memory, ALU, output, and control units. Memory is used to store programs and data in primary and secondary storage.
3) The steps of instruction execution are outlined beginning with the program counter loading the address of the first instruction and ending with it being incremented to the next one. Functional units work together under the control of the central processing unit.
Basic structure of computers by aniket bhuteAniket Bhute
The document summarizes the basic structure and functional units of computers. It discusses how computers handle information through instructions and data. The main functional units that process information are the memory unit, arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), and control unit. It also describes the number representation systems used in computers, focusing on the two's complement system for signed integers. Addition and subtraction are performed through two's complement arithmetic.
The document discusses the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It covers:
- The main functional units of a computer including the processor, memory, input/output devices, and their interconnections.
- How instructions and data are represented and handled in a computer using binary encoding.
- The roles of the main memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, and registers in storing and processing instructions and data.
- Basic concepts of computer operation including fetching instructions from memory, retrieving operands, executing operations in the ALU, and storing results.
The document summarizes the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It describes how a computer contains a central processing unit (CPU) that includes an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit to execute instructions. A computer also has memory to store programs and data, and input/output (I/O) devices to accept and output information. The CPU fetches instructions from memory, retrieves operands from memory or registers, performs operations in the ALU, and stores results back to memory or registers. The control unit coordinates the flow of data and execution of instructions. Performance can be improved by increasing clock speed, reducing the number of steps per instruction through pipelining and superscalar techniques, and optimizing compilers
The document summarizes the basic functional units and operations of a computer system. It describes how a computer contains a central processing unit (CPU) that includes an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit to execute instructions. A computer also has memory to store programs and data, and input/output (I/O) devices to accept and deliver information. The CPU fetches instructions from memory, retrieves operands from memory or registers, performs operations in the ALU, and stores results back to memory or registers. The control unit coordinates the flow of data and execution of instructions. Performance can be improved by increasing clock speed, reducing the number of steps per instruction through pipelining and superscalar techniques, and optimizing compilers
Basic Structure of Computers: Functional Units, Basic Operational Concepts, B...Abhishekn84
An implementation for one bit of register Ri is shown in Figure. A two-input multiplexer is used to select the data applied to the input of an edge-triggered D flip-flop. When the control input Riin is equal to 1, the multiplexer selects the data on the bus. This data will be loaded into the flip-flop at the rising edge of the clock. When Riin is equal to 0, the multiplexer feeds back the value currently stored in the flip-flop To study these operations in detail, let us examine the internal organization of the processor. The main building blocks of a processor are interconnected in a variety of ways. A very simple organization is shown in above figure more complex structure that provides high performance will be presented at the end.
Figure shows an organization in which the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and all the registers are interconnected through a single common bus, which is internal to the processor. The data and address lines of the external memory bus are shown in figure connected to the internal processor bus via the memory data register, MDR, and the memory address register, MAR, respectively. Register MDR has two inputs and two outputs.
Data may be loaded into MDR either from the memory bus or from the internal processor bus. The data stored in MDR may be placed on either bus. The input of MAR is connected to the internal bus, and its output is connected to the external bus. The control lines of the memory bus are connected to the instruction decoder and control logic block. This unit is responsible for issuing the signals that control the operation of all the units inside the processor and for interacting with the memory bus.
To study these operations in detail, let us examine the internal organization of the processor. The main building blocks of a processor are interconnected in a variety of ways. A very simple organization is shown in above figure more complex structure that provides high performance will be presented at the end.
Figure shows an organization in which the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and all the registers are interconnected through a single common bus, which is internal to the processor. The data and address lines of the external memory bus are shown in figure connected to the internal processor bus via the memory data register, MDR, and the memory address register, MAR, respectively. Register MDR has two inputs and two outputs.
Data may be loaded into MDR either from the memory bus or from the internal processor bus. The data stored in MDR may be placed on either bus. The input of MAR is connected to the internal bus, and its output is connected to the external bus. The control lines of the memory bus are connected to the instruction decoder and control logic block. This unit is responsible for issuing the signals that control the operation of all the units inside the processor and for interacting with the memory bus.To study these operations in detail, let us examine the internal organization of the
The document discusses different types of computers and their basic structure and functioning. It begins by classifying computers into categories like microcomputers, laptops, workstations, supercomputers, and more. It then explains the functional units of a computer including the input, output, memory, arithmetic logic, and control units. Finally, it covers various performance metrics for computers like clock rate, pipelining, superscalar operations, and differences between RISC and CISC instruction sets.
The document discusses the components inside a CPU. It describes the motherboard, power supply, cooling fan, and drive bays that are inside the computer case. On the motherboard are the system clock, microprocessor, memory, chipset, and input/output buses. The CPU is made up of a control unit, instruction unit with ALU and FPU, registers, caches, and buses that connect the components. Common CPU components like the clock, control unit, and cache are also explained in detail.
This document provides information about the objectives, outcomes, and modules of a computer organization course. The course aims to explain computer subsystems and their organization, illustrate how programs are executed as machine instructions, and describe memory hierarchy and arithmetic/logical operations. It will also cover the organization of simple and pipelined processors. The course outcomes include explaining basic computer organization and demonstrating how subsystems like the processor, memory, and I/O systems function.
1) Embedded systems are computing systems that perform dedicated functions. They contain a processor, memory, and input/output components on a single chip or board.
2) There are two main implementations of embedded systems - system on chip (SOC) and system board (SB). SOC is cheaper and uses less power, while SB is more costly but allows for higher performance.
3) Microcontrollers are a type of SOC that contain a CPU, memory, and input/output control on a single chip. They are dedicated to specific tasks and commonly interface with sensors, switches, LEDs and other components.
This document discusses general-purpose processors. It begins by introducing general-purpose processors and their basic architecture, which consists of a control unit and datapath that is designed to perform a variety of computation tasks. It then describes the operations of loading, storing, and arithmetic/logical operations that can be performed by the datapath. Subsequent sections provide more details on the control unit and how it sequences operations, instruction cycles, architectural considerations like bit-width and clock frequency, and techniques for improving performance like pipelining and superscalar execution. The document concludes with sections on assembly-level instructions and programmer considerations.
The document discusses the Von Neumann architecture and stored program concept. It describes how John Von Neumann proposed storing both computer instructions and data in memory. This became known as the Von Neumann model, where the central processing unit can fetch both instructions and data from memory to execute programs. It established the basic structure of having a memory, processing unit, and control unit that orchestrates instruction execution in a fetch-execute cycle that is still used in modern computers.
This document provides an overview of an Artificial Intelligence course. The key learning outcomes are knowledge of AI concepts like search, game playing, knowledge representation, planning, and machine learning. Students will also develop intellectual skills to synthesize solutions and evaluate alternatives, and practical skills to use Prolog and construct simple AI systems. The course will cover topics in search, knowledge representation, planning, machine learning, logic, expert systems, robotics, natural language processing, and their dependencies. Students are expected to attend lectures and supplement with textbook reading.
This presentation provides an overview of machine learning, including its history, definitions, applications and algorithms. It begins with early work in the 1950s and discusses modern definitions of machine learning as systems that improve with experience. The presentation outlines key concepts like training and testing data, performance factors and common algorithm types for supervised, unsupervised and semi-supervised learning. It concludes that machine learning will become increasingly important in many domains from multimedia to economics.
Ethical hacking for Business or Management.pptxFarhanaMariyam1
The document discusses ethical hacking and password cracking techniques. It begins with an introduction to ethical hacking and defines it as testing systems for security purposes with authorization. It then covers various password cracking techniques like dictionary attacks, brute force attacks, default passwords, and social engineering. Specific tools mentioned that can be used for password cracking include Cain and Abel, John the Ripper, THC Hydra, and rainbow tables. Common password mistakes are also listed. The document provides information on ethical hacking and analyzing various methods for cracking passwords.
Database security in database management.pptxFarhanaMariyam1
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Human: Thank
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2. Architecture vs. Organization
• Architecture:
– Also known as Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
– Programmer visible part of a processor:
instruction set, registers, addressing modes, etc.
• Organization:
– High-level design: how many caches? how many
arithmetic and logic units? What type of
pipelining, control design, etc.
– Sometimes known as micro-architecture
4. Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU)
Most computer operations are executed in
ALU of the processor.
Load the operands into memory – bring them
to the processor – perform operation in ALU –
store the result back to memory or retain in
the processor.
Registers
5. Control Unit
All computer operations are controlled by the control unit.
The timing signals that govern the I/O transfers are also
generated by the control unit.
Operations of a computer:
Accept information in the form of programs and data through an input
unit and store it in the memory
Fetch the information stored in the memory, under program control, into
an ALU, where the information is processed
Output the processed information through an output unit
6. INSTRUCTIONS
Instruction codes
• Program
– A sequence of (machine) instructions
• (Machine) Instruction
– A group of bits that tell the computer to perform a specific operation (a sequence of
micro-operation)
• The instructions of a program, along with any needed data are
stored in memory
• The CPU reads the next instruction from memory
• It is placed in an Instruction Register (IR)
• Control circuitry in control unit then translates the instruction into
the sequence of micro-operations necessary to implement it
• Ability to store and execute differs from one to other
7. INSTRUCTION FORMAT
Instruction codes
• A computer instruction is often divided into two parts
– An op-code (Operation Code) that specifies the operation for that
instruction
– An address that specifies the registers and/or locations in memory to
use for that operation
15 14 0
I Op-code Address
Instruction Format
12 11
Addressing
mode
9. PROCESSOR REGISTERS
Instruction codes
• A processor has many registers to hold instructions, addresses, data, etc….
• The processor has a register, the Program Counter (PC) that holds the
memory address of the next instruction to get
• Control unit stores instruction after reading it from memory is called as
Instruction Register (IR) .
• In a direct or indirect addressing, the processor needs to keep track of what
locations in memory it is addressing: The Address Register (AR) [Same as
MAR] is used for this
• When an operand is found, using either direct or indirect addressing, it is
placed in the Data Register (DR) [same as MDR]. The processor then uses this
value as data for its operation
• The Basic Computer has a Accumulator (AC) for manipulation of data .
10. PROCESSOR REGISTERS
Instruction codes
• The significance of a general purpose register (GPR) is that it can be referred
to, in instructions
– e.g. load AC with the contents of a specific memory location; store the contents of AC into a
specified memory location
• Often a processor will need a scratch register to store intermediate results or
other temporary data; in the Basic Computer this is the Temporary Register
(TR)
• The Basic Computer uses a very simple model of input/output (I/O)
operations
– Input devices are considered to send characters of data to the processor
– The processor can send characters of data to output devices
• The Input Register (INPR) holds character from an input device.
• The Output Register (OUTR) holds character to be send to an output device.
11. Stored Program Concept
• CPU consists of ALU & CU
• Main Memory
• INPUT & OUTPUT System
• Program + Data on same memory
• But each memory location must be
addressed independently.
• Single path between main memory &
control unit, so control signal can’t
exchange simultaneously.
Von-neuman Architecture
12. Basic Operational Concepts
A Typical Instruction
ADD LOCA, R0
Add the operand at memory location LOCA to the operand
in a register R0 in the processor.
Place the sum into register R0.
The original contents of LOCA are preserved.
The original contents of R0 is overwritten.
Instruction is fetched from the memory into the processor –
the operand at LOCA is fetched and added to the contents
of R0 – the resulting sum is stored in register R0.
13. Memory Access & ALU
Operation
Example:-
Load LOCA, R1
Add R1, R0
Whose contents will be overwritten?
14. Connection Between the Processor and the Memory
1. Instruction register (IR)
2. Program counter (PC)
3. General-purpose register (R0 – Rn-1)
4. Memory address register (MAR)
5. Memory data register (MDR)
• Programs reside in the memory through
input devices
• PC is set to point to the first instruction
• The contents of PC are transferred to MAR
• A Read signal is sent to the memory
• The first instruction is read out and loaded
into MDR
• The contents of MDR are transferred to IR
• Decode and execute the instruction
• Get operands for ALU
General-purpose register
Memory (address to MAR – Read –
MDR to ALU)
• Perform operation in ALU
• Store the result back
To general-purpose register
To memory (address to MAR, result to
MDR – Write)
• During the execution, PC is incremented
to the next instruction.
Typical Operating Steps
15. Interrupt
• Normal execution of programs may be preempted if
some device requires urgent servicing.
• The normal execution of the current program must be
interrupted – the device raises an interrupt signal.
• Interrupt-service routine
• Current system information backup and restore (PC,
general-purpose registers, control information, specific
information)
16. Bus Structures
• There are many ways to connect different parts inside a
computer together.
• A group of lines that serves as a connecting path for several
devices is called a bus.
• Address/data/control
17. Performance
• The most important measure of a computer is how quickly it can execute
programs.
• Three factors affect performance:
Hardware design
Instruction set
Compiler
• Processor time to execute a program depends on the hardware involved
in the execution of individual machine instructions.
Main
memory Processor
Bus
Cache
memory
18. Processor Clock
• Clock :- Processor circuits are controlled by timing signal
• Clock cycle:- A regular time interval (Ex. Cycle length p)
• Clock rate (R):- Inverse of clock cycle { R = ⅟p } which is
measured in cycles per second.
• The execution of each instruction is divided into several
steps, each of which completes in one clock cycle.
• Hertz (Hz) – cycles per second
19. Basic Performance Equation
• T – processor time required to execute a program that has
been prepared in high-level language
• N – number of actual machine language instructions needed
to complete the execution (note: loop)
• S – average number of basic steps needed to execute one
machine instruction. Each step completes in one clock cycle
• R – clock rate
Note:- These are not independent to each other
T
NS
R
How to improve T ?
Reduce N & S
Increase R
20. Pipeline & Superscalar Operation
• If source program complied in fewer machine instruction
Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)
Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)
• Goal – reduce N
• Instructions are not necessarily executed one after another.
• The value of S doesn’t have to be the number of clock cycles to execute one
instruction.
• Pipelining – overlapping the execution of successive instructions.
• Superscalar operation – multiple instruction pipelines are implemented in
the processor.
• Goal – reduce S
• Increase clock rate
Improve the integrated-circuit (IC) technology to make the circuits faster
Reduce the amount of processing done in one basic step
• Increases in R that are entirely caused by improvements in IC technology
affect all aspects of the processor’s operation equally except the time to
access the main memory.
21. CISC vs. RISC
Organizations
Main Memory Main Memory
Microprogrammed
Control Unit
Microprogrammed
Control Memory
Cache
Hardwared
Control Unit
Instruction
Cache
Data
Cache
(a) CISC Organization (b) RISC Organization
22. Compiler
• A compiler translates a high-level language program into a
sequence of machine instructions.
• To reduce N, we need a suitable machine instruction set
and a compiler that makes good use of it.
• Goal – reduce N×S
• A compiler may not be designed for a specific processor;
however, a high-quality compiler is usually designed for,
and with, a specific processor.
23. Multiprocessors & Multicomputer
• Multiprocessor
Execute a number of different application tasks in parallel
Execute subtasks of a single large task in parallel
All processors have access to all of the memory – shared-
memory multiprocessor
Cost – processors, memory units, complex interconnection
networks
• Multicomputer
Each computer only have access to its own memory
Exchange message via a communication network – message-
passing multicomputer
24. UMA vs. NUMA Computers
Cache
P1
Cache
P2
Cache
Pn
Cache
P1
Cache
P2
Cache
Pn
Network
Main
Memory
Main
Memory
Main
Memory
Main
Memory
Bus
(a) UMA Model (b) NUMA Model
25. Memory Location, Addresses,&
Operation
• Memory consists of
many millions of
storage cells, each
of which can store 1
bit data as 0/1.
• Data is usually
accessed
groups
in n-bit
as Word
( Where n is called
word length ).
first word
second word
Memory words.
nbits
last word
i th word
•
•
•
•
•
•
26. Memory Location, Addresses &
Operation
• 32-bit word length example
(b) Four characters
ASCII
character
ASCII
character
ASCII
character
ASCII
character
Sign bit: b31= 0 for positive numbers
b31= 1 for negative numbers
(a) A signed integer
32 bits
8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits
•
b31 b30
•
•
b1 b0
27. Memory Location, Addresses &
Operation
• To retrieve information from memory, either for one
word or one byte (8-bit), addresses for each location are
needed.
• A k-bit address memory has 2k memory locations,
namely 0 to 2k - 1, called as memory space.
• Example:-
• 24-bit memory: 224 = 16,777,216 = 16M (1M=220)
• 32-bit memory: 232 = 4G (1G=230)
• 1K(kilo)=210
• 1T(tera)=240
28. Memory Location, Addresses &
Operation
• It is impractical to assign distinct addresses to individual bit
locations in the memory.
• The most practical assignment is to have successive
addresses refer to successive byte locations in the memory
called as byte-addressable memory.
• Byte locations have addresses 0, 1, 2, …
• If word length is 32 bits, they successive words are located
at addresses 0, 4, 8,…, with each word consists of four
bytes.
30. Big-Endian & Little-Endian
Assignments
0 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
•
•
•
2
k
- 4 2
k
- 3
k
2 - 2 2
k
- 1
k
2 - 4
k
2 - 4
0
0
4
3 2 1 0
7 6 5 4
•
•
•
k
2 - 1 2
k
- 2 2
k
- 3 2
k
- 4
Byte address
Byte address
(a) Big-endian assignment
Byte and word addressing.
(b) Little-endian assignment
4
Word
address
Big-Endian:- Lower byte addresses are used for the most significant bytes of the word
Little-Endian: - (opposite ordering ) Lower byte addresses are used for less significant bytes of word
31. Intel MultiCore Architecture
• Improving execution rate of a single-thread is still
considered important:
– Uses out-of-order execution and speculation.
• MultiCore architecture:
– Can reduce power consumption.
– (14 pipeline stages) is closer to the Pentium M (12 stages)
than the P4 (30 stages).
• Many transistors are invested in large branch
predictors:
– To reduce wasted work (power).
32. Intel’s Dual Core Architectures
• The Pentium D is simply two Pentium 4 cpus:
– Inefficiently paired together to run as dual core.
• Core Duo is Intel's first generation dual core processor based
upon the Pentium M (a Pentium III-4 hybrid):
– Made mostly for laptops and is much more efficient than Pentium
D.
• Core 2 Duo is Intel's second generation (hence, Core 2)
processor:
– Made for desktops and laptops designed to be fast while not
consuming nearly as much power as previous CPUs.
• Intel has now dropped the Pentium name in favor of the Core
architecture.
34. Intel Core 2 Duo
• Code named
“conroe”
• Homogeneous cores
• Bus based chip
interconnect.
• Shared on-die Cache
ClM
assie
c O
m
OO
o:rR
y
e.
servation Stations,
Issue ports, Schedulers…etc
Large, shared set associative,
prefetch, etc.
Source: Intel Corp.