Hematology is the branch of medicine, that is concerned with the study of blood, blood forming organs and blood diseases. It includes study of etiology, diagnosis, treatment, prognosis and prevention of blood diseases .
After the completion of this presentation we will know about:
What is hematology and its purpose.
hematology laboratory.
Blood and its compositions and collections
Hematology lab equipment's
Some hematological tests , disease and hazards too.
A brief presentation for second-year students in Iraqi Technical Institutes (studying Medical Laboratory Technology). This introduction covers the types of blood samples, how to collect these samples, common sites for collection, and anticoagulants in a test-tubes.
Hematology is the branch of medicine, that is concerned with the study of blood, blood forming organs and blood diseases. It includes study of etiology, diagnosis, treatment, prognosis and prevention of blood diseases .
After the completion of this presentation we will know about:
What is hematology and its purpose.
hematology laboratory.
Blood and its compositions and collections
Hematology lab equipment's
Some hematological tests , disease and hazards too.
A brief presentation for second-year students in Iraqi Technical Institutes (studying Medical Laboratory Technology). This introduction covers the types of blood samples, how to collect these samples, common sites for collection, and anticoagulants in a test-tubes.
Collecting blood samples and other biological specimens is crucial to the understanding, prevention, and treatment of disease. However, from the patient’s perspective, it can also be painful, unnerving, frightening, and inconvenient.
The Compatibility can be determined by matching the different blood group systems, such as ABO and Rh system, and/or by directly testing for the presence of antibodies against a sample of donor tissues or blood.
The main purpose of this test is to distinguish the appearance of antibodies in the recipient against the red blood cells of the donor. These antibodies can be found on the surface of red blood cells of the donor after transfusion.
The human body is a biological machine made of body systems groups of organs that work together to produce and sustain life. A human body systems is an organization of varying numbers and kinds of organ so arranged that together they can perform complex functions for the body. Twelve major systems include the skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary ,reproductive, skin and appendages and blood immune system.
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
Navigating Challenges: Mental Health, Legislation, and the Prison System in B...Guillermo Rivera
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CRISPR-Cas9, a revolutionary gene-editing tool, holds immense potential to reshape medicine, agriculture, and our understanding of life. But like any powerful tool, it comes with ethical considerations.
Unveiling CRISPR: This naturally occurring bacterial defense system (crRNA & Cas9 protein) fights viruses. Scientists repurposed it for precise gene editing (correction, deletion, insertion) by targeting specific DNA sequences.
The Promise: CRISPR offers exciting possibilities:
Gene Therapy: Correcting genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis.
Agriculture: Engineering crops resistant to pests and harsh environments.
Research: Studying gene function to unlock new knowledge.
The Peril: Ethical concerns demand attention:
Off-target Effects: Unintended DNA edits can have unforeseen consequences.
Eugenics: Misusing CRISPR for designer babies raises social and ethical questions.
Equity: High costs could limit access to this potentially life-saving technology.
The Path Forward: Responsible development is crucial:
International Collaboration: Clear guidelines are needed for research and human trials.
Public Education: Open discussions ensure informed decisions about CRISPR.
Prioritize Safety and Ethics: Safety and ethical principles must be paramount.
CRISPR offers a powerful tool for a better future, but responsible development and addressing ethical concerns are essential. By prioritizing safety, fostering open dialogue, and ensuring equitable access, we can harness CRISPR's power for the benefit of all. (2998 characters)
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CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V PREVENTIVE-PEDIATRICS.pdfSachin Sharma
This content provides an overview of preventive pediatrics. It defines preventive pediatrics as preventing disease and promoting children's physical, mental, and social well-being to achieve positive health. It discusses antenatal, postnatal, and social preventive pediatrics. It also covers various child health programs like immunization, breastfeeding, ICDS, and the roles of organizations like WHO, UNICEF, and nurses in preventive pediatrics.
Antibiotic Stewardship by Anushri Srivastava.pptxAnushriSrivastav
Stewardship is the act of taking good care of something.
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to fill knowledge gaps and inform strategies at all levels.
ACCORDING TO apic.org,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
ACCORDING TO pewtrusts.org,
Antibiotic stewardship refers to efforts in doctors’ offices, hospitals, long term care facilities, and other health care settings to ensure that antibiotics are used only when necessary and appropriate
According to WHO,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a systematic approach to educate and support health care professionals to follow evidence-based guidelines for prescribing and administering antimicrobials
In 1996, John McGowan and Dale Gerding first applied the term antimicrobial stewardship, where they suggested a causal association between antimicrobial agent use and resistance. They also focused on the urgency of large-scale controlled trials of antimicrobial-use regulation employing sophisticated epidemiologic methods, molecular typing, and precise resistance mechanism analysis.
Antimicrobial Stewardship(AMS) refers to the optimal selection, dosing, and duration of antimicrobial treatment resulting in the best clinical outcome with minimal side effects to the patients and minimal impact on subsequent resistance.
According to the 2019 report, in the US, more than 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur each year, and more than 35000 people die. In addition to this, it also mentioned that 223,900 cases of Clostridoides difficile occurred in 2017, of which 12800 people died. The report did not include viruses or parasites
VISION
Being proactive
Supporting optimal animal and human health
Exploring ways to reduce overall use of antimicrobials
Using the drugs that prevent and treat disease by killing microscopic organisms in a responsible way
GOAL
to prevent the generation and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Doing so will preserve the effectiveness of these drugs in animals and humans for years to come.
being to preserve human and animal health and the effectiveness of antimicrobial medications.
to implement a multidisciplinary approach in assembling a stewardship team to include an infectious disease physician, a clinical pharmacist with infectious diseases training, infection preventionist, and a close collaboration with the staff in the clinical microbiology laboratory
to prevent antimicrobial overuse, misuse and abuse.
to minimize the developme
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V - ROLE OF PEADIATRIC NURSE.pdfSachin Sharma
Pediatric nurses play a vital role in the health and well-being of children. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and their objectives can be categorized into several key areas:
1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
By fulfilling these objectives, pediatric nurses play a crucial role in ensuring the optimal health and well-being of children throughout all stages of their development.
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The speakers included:
Professor Orazio Schillaci, Minister of Health, Italy
Dr Hans Groth, Chairman of the Board, World Demographic & Ageing Forum
Professor Ilona Kickbusch, Founder and Chair, Global Health Centre, Geneva Graduate Institute and co-chair, World Health Summit Council
Dr Natasha Azzopardi Muscat, Director, Country Health Policies and Systems Division, World Health Organisation EURO
Dr Marta Lomazzi, Executive Manager, World Federation of Public Health Associations
Dr Shyam Bishen, Head, Centre for Health and Healthcare and Member of the Executive Committee, World Economic Forum
Dr Karin Tegmark Wisell, Director General, Public Health Agency of Sweden
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2. CLINICAL PATHOLOGY
What is clinical pathology?
Clinical pathology is an laboratory that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis
of bodily fluids, such as blood, urine, and tissue homogenates or extracts.
Clinical – clinical samples (blood , urine, stool, body fluids, etc….)
Pathology – study about disease.
The science and practice of medical diagnosis by laboratory examination and analysis of tissue specimens (Biopsies),
body fluids and other samples.
Clinical pathology is subdivided into
• Virology,
• Bacteriology,
• clinical
• chemistry,
• Serology and
• pathological Histology.
4. SAMPLE COLLECTION
BLOOD collection method
Blood collection, or the collection of blood, usually involves the removal of blood and it comes in
many different forms. It's also a common term in blood sampling for laboratory analysis.
Three popular methods of blood collection are:
1. Arterial Sampling
2. Venipuncture Sampling
3. Fingerstick Sampling
5. 1. ARTERIAL SAMPLING
This form of blood collection most commonly takes place within a
hospital environment.
It is used in the identification of metabolic, respiratory, and mixed
acid-base disorders, where CO2 levels require understanding or
monitoring.
While generally safe, the procedure can be upsetting and painful for
the patient.
There are also several potential contradictions that can affect the
site of the collection, such as an abnormal modified Allen test or
local infection.
There is also an increased risk of bleeding complications in patients
with coagulopathy.
6. 2. VEINPUNCTURE SAMPLING
Venipuncture is the most common way to collect blood from adult patients.
Collection takes place from a superficial vein in the upper limb, generally
the median cubital vein; this vein is close to the skin and doesn’t have many
large nerves positioned close by.
This reduces pain and discomfort for the patient.
Clean the sight with spirit allow to dry. Readily attached shyring and needle
is introduced to the vein with the level facing upward at an angle of 30 – 40
* to the skin.
Entrance into the vein is denoted by appearance of blood into the hub of the
needle.
Release the tourniquet an withdrawn the needle . The blod is transfer into the
appropriate containers.
7. 3. FINGERSTICK SAMPLING
Fingerstick or finger prick sampling involves taking a very small amount of
blood from the patient, usually from the end of a finger.
It is also known as Capilary blood collection.
It is over quickly and requires very little in the way of preparation;
therefore, reducing concern and anxiety in patients, particularly in children
and nervous adults.
Clean the finger with alcohol swab and allow to dry.
Hold the ball finger and make a quick puncture about ½ cm from the end
using a sterile lancet, wipe the first drop as it may contains tisuue fluids.
The blood should floe freely, without applying pressure collect the
succeeding drop for investigation.
It is mainly used for doing differential count, cell count, Hb estimation ,
etc…
8. LABELLING
Before or after the sample collection the tube should be labelled immediately.
Requiring patients to state their full name and birth date, and to spell their first
name and last name;
Requiring outpatients to show a form of identification when an ID band is not
in use, typically a driver’s license or insurance card;
Labeling specimen tubes in the presence of the patient after the draw;
Visually comparing tube labels with the ID band or requiring the patient to
confirm samples are properly labeled.
It should be help avoid errors.
9. TYPES OF BLOOD COLLECTION TUBES
Red :
No anticoagulant or additives.
Collection of serum for chemical or serological and bacteriologic studies.
May be used for any procedure requiring serum except HLA antibody tests.
Lavender :
Contains EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetate) as the anticoagulant.
Mix well Primarily for collection of hematology studies, blood bank procedures and certain chemistries.
Blue :
Contains sodium citrate (0.109M, 3.2%) solution as the anticoagulant.
Primarily for collection of coagulation studies.
Gray :
Contains potassium oxalate and sodium fluoride as the anticoagulant.
Mix well For the collection of glucose and lactate samples.
Not suitable for enzymes or electrolytes.
10. Green :
Contains lithium heparin as the anticoagulant.
Mix well For collection of other miscellaneous studies.
Electrolytes, glucose, BUN can be performed more quickly than from a red top.
Special green :
Sterile, contains sodium heparin as the anticoagulant.
For collection of flow cytometry specimens.
Yellow :
contains ACD (Acid Citrate Dextrose) as the anticoagulant.
For determination of HLA-ABC antigens, HLA-B27, HLA Molecular Typing, G6PD levels and
acid phosphatase levels.
Pink :
Does not contain any anticoagulant, serum separator, or silicone coating.
For detection of HLA antibodies in serum (CYTS).
12. URINE SAMPLE COLLECTION METHOD
What is urine ?
Urine is an ultrafiltrate of the blood plasma and fluid created in the kidney and stored in the
urinary bladder.
It is a waste product and it can give us a wealth of information! Many metabolic diseases can be
detected and monitored via the urine.
Urine is mostly water with dissolved metabolites.
Urine Specimen Types Include:
First Morning Urine:
very first urine voided when waking up after sleep, since it has been retained and incubating in
the bladder for 6-8 hours and is the most concentrated specimen
• ideal for testing for protein or to confirm postural or orthostatic proteinuria
• ideal for testing for nitrites
• red blood cells, white blood cells, and casts that may be present will be more stable.
• The urine is slightly more acidic and has high osmolality
during the night before, the individual should void right before going to bed
13. Random Urine Specimen:
This type of urine specimen can be collected at any time, whether day or night
No prior patient preparation
Easy and convenient
Good for routine screening
Good for cytology studies
Good for fluid deprivation studies
“Random clean catch" type of specimens can also be performed after good hydration and are
perfect for cytology studies
Individual will consume 24-32 oz of water each hour for 2 hours prior to urine collection may
require collection daily for 3-5 consecutive days
Enhanced by patient exercise for 5 minutes prior to specimen collection (jumping, skipping,
running in place)
14. Timed Collection:
This specimen is collected throughout a very specific time interval (ex: 2 hours, 12 hours, 24 hours,
over a weekend, etc...)
Avoid at the beginning of the collection then discard it
Collect all subsequent urines
Include the last void in the urine
Catheterized Urine:
Obtained using a sterile, flexible tube catheter, which is inserted into the urethra and into the bladder
Urine flows into the bladder by gravity and is collected in a plastic reservoir bag
Requires healthcare personnel to perform
UTIs are common in catheterized patients, so these are often sent for bacterial culture
16. Routine Void:
Does not require patient preparation
Simple urination into a specimen collection container
Midstream "Clean Catch:
Urine is collected after thorough cleansing of the urethral opening with antiseptic wipes
The individual must pass the first portion of the urine in the toilet, stop the stream, then collect the mid
portion of the urine into the specimen container, followed by passing remaining urine into the toilet
Ideal for the routine urinalysis and urine culture free from contamination
Suprapubic Aspiration:
A rare technique used to collect urine directly form the bladder via the puncturing of the abdominal wall
and distended bladder following the use of a sterile needle and syringe
This technique is used to obtain sterile urine for bacterial cultures from infants or adults, is aspirated into
the syringe, capped and sent for analysis
17. Pediatric Collections:
Sterile, plastic urine collection bags with a hypoallergenic skin adhesive are used for collection
after the perineal area is classed and dried prior to placement of the specimen bag onto the skin
The patient is checked every 15 minutes to see if enough specimen has been collected
URINE SAMPLE COLLECTION
The urine specimen containers for collection should be clean, dry, sterile, made of
clear translucent, disposable plastic or glass.
It should be stable and able to stand upright, with a rim of 4-5 cm.
It should be able to hold as much as 50-100 mL of urine.
It should also come with the lid tightly screwed on and should be a leakproof seal or
covered to prevent leaks or spills.
Always wear gloves and proper PPE when working with urine.
18. LABELLING
Before the sample collection the container should be labelled immediately.
Requiring patients to state their full name and birth date, and to spell their first name and
last name.
It should be help avoid errors.
The labels should contain adhesive that resists moisture and will stick during refrigeration.
It should contain the
• Patient's full name
• A unique ID number
• The date and time of collection
• An ID or information about the room number or clinic name of
collection
• The type of preservative used and date/time.
19. Urine Storage and Handling :
Ideally, once collected, urine specimens should be sent immediately to the laboratory.
Time of arrival to the laboratory should be documented.
If this is not possible, the specimen should be preserved or refrigerated.
Transportation to the laboratory or some type of preservation must occur within 2 hours of
collection, otherwise the specimen will be no good and will need to be rejected.
Urine is sensitive to light, temperature, moisture, and microbes in the environment.
Urine preservation method
Urine preservative is basically either a chemical substance or a process or technique used to
prevent changes in the composition of the urine until it can be tested, or to prevent deterioration of
any formed elements.
The most common form of urine preservation is refrigeration, though there are chemical means to
preserve urine for a couple of hours at room temperature as well.
20. First morning urine specimens have high osmolality, and are therefore prone to salts crystallizing upon
cooling to room temperature, which are known as amorphous urates, which can interfere with some
cytological studies.
Random urine specimens may be preferred for this type of testing.
Specimens need to be preserved within 2 hours of collection if not analyzed immediately.
Changes in unpreserved urine may be
A) Physical - Color, Clarity , Odour
B) Chemical - Ph, Glucose, Ketones, Bilirubin, Urobilinogen , Etc…..
C) Microscopic – Casts, Bacteria, Etc….
The easiest and most common type of preservation is refrigeration of the urine specimen at 4-6 degrees
Celsius within 2 hours of collection if the specimen is not able to be tested right away.
21. Timed urine collections may require the use of a chemical preservative.
• Boric acid
• Thymol
• Formalin
• Glacial acetic acid
• Sodium carbonate
23. STOOL SAMPLE COLLECTION
You will be collecting a sample for one or more tests, depending on your health care provider’s order.
You may use the same bowel movement for more than one test. For each test:
Unscrew the lid from the specimen container. Set aside.
Prepare the collection container (clean shallow pan, plastic bag or clear plastic wrap) in which you
will collect your sample.
Collect the sample. Do not collect stool that has been mixed with water or urine.
Using the plastic spoon attached to the lid, scoop out samples from bloody, slimy or watery areas
of the stool (if present). If the stool is hard, select areas from each end and the middle of the stool.
Transfer enough of the selected stool to the orange- and green-cap specimen containers to raise the
level of liquid to the “fill to here” line. Do not overfill.
Screw the lid back on the container. Make sure it is closed tightly. Shake to mix.
Place the specimen container in a zip-close bag and seal it.
25. Sample rejection criteria for clinical samples
Improper test requests (incomplete, duplicate, errors in test input, inconsistent information)
Inappropriate transport (transport temperature, light exposure, delayed transport time)
Specimens without barcodes or unsuitable barcodes
Misidentification (unlabeled, mislabeled or mismatched samples)
Improper container or tube (including precious samples such as cerebrospinal fluid)
Insufficient specimen volume (inappropriate blood/anticoagulant ratio)
Incorrect preservation, storage
Lipemic specimen
Hemolyzed specimen
Clotted samples with fibrin .
26. Specimens which are improperly labeled.
Specimens in which the quantity is not sufficient for proper processing.
Specimens in which there has been a significant time delay between specimen collection and
specimen receipt (more than 24 hours), for which a transport tube/medium was not used and/or
specimen results would be compromised. Specimens and requisitions which are incompatible
(i.e. urine specimen with requisition checked off for sputum).
Specimens received with no requisition.
Liquid specimens which are not sent in sterile, dry, leakproof containers.
Requisitions which have been contaminated with a liquid specimen.
SPECIMENS IN SYRINGE WITH NEEDLE ATTACHED. Physician and/or office staff will be
contacted to remove needle before specimen will be processed.