This document summarizes several theories of adult development, including age/stage, life events, and transitions theories. Age/stage theorists like Levinson, Gilligan, Havighurst, Maslow, Gould, and Erikson see development as proceeding through distinct stages linked to age. Life events theorists such as Neugarten, Baltes, and Riegel link development to major life occurrences. Transitions theorists like Bridges and Sugarman view development as a series of transitions between life phases.

1. Adult DevelopmentAdult Development
TheoriesTheories
Class 3Class 3
ADLT 601 – The Adult LearnerADLT 601 – The Adult Learner
Spring 2006Spring 2006

2. Personal Development TheoristsPersonal Development Theorists
 Age / StageAge / Stage
 Development proceeds according to a series of stagesDevelopment proceeds according to a series of stages
adults pass through as they ageadults pass through as they age
 Life EventsLife Events
 Development coincides with major life events such asDevelopment coincides with major life events such as
marriage, death of spouse, etcmarriage, death of spouse, etc
 TransitionsTransitions
 Development marked by periods of transition from oneDevelopment marked by periods of transition from one
stage to anotherstage to another

3. Age – Stage TheoristsAge – Stage Theorists
Levinson (1978, 1996)Levinson (1978, 1996)
Gilligan (1986)Gilligan (1986)
Havighurst (1981)Havighurst (1981)
Maslow (1968)Maslow (1968)
Gould (1978)Gould (1978)
Erikson (1959)Erikson (1959)

4. Daniel LevinsonDaniel Levinson
 Life cycle composed of 4 developmental periodsLife cycle composed of 4 developmental periods
 Childhood – Adolescence (birth – age 20)Childhood – Adolescence (birth – age 20)
 Early Adulthood (ages 17-45)Early Adulthood (ages 17-45)
 Middle Adulthood (ages 40 – 65)Middle Adulthood (ages 40 – 65)
 Late Adulthood (ages 60 – onward)Late Adulthood (ages 60 – onward)
 Each transition takes 3-6 years to completeEach transition takes 3-6 years to complete
 Concept of individuation – changing relationshipConcept of individuation – changing relationship
between self and the worldbetween self and the world

5. Carol GilliganCarol Gilligan
 Feminist perspective on age-stage theoriesFeminist perspective on age-stage theories
 Highly critical of Levinson’s concept of “theHighly critical of Levinson’s concept of “the
dream”dream”
 Male identity build upon contrast andMale identity build upon contrast and
separateness to primary care-giverseparateness to primary care-giver
 Female identity based on perceptions ofFemale identity based on perceptions of
sameness and attachment to primary caregiversameness and attachment to primary caregiver

6. Gilligan, con’tGilligan, con’t
 Women’s moral judgment proceeds throughWomen’s moral judgment proceeds through
three levelsthree levels
 Focus on self (Level 1)Focus on self (Level 1)
 Caring for others equated with good (Level 2)Caring for others equated with good (Level 2)
 Caring for others and responsibility forCaring for others and responsibility for
individual needs (Level 3)individual needs (Level 3)
 Two transitionsTwo transitions
 Movement from selfishness to responsibilityMovement from selfishness to responsibility
 Movement from goodness to truthMovement from goodness to truth

7. HavighurstHavighurst
ickering and Havighurstickering and Havighurst
 Concept of the “teachable moment” whenConcept of the “teachable moment” when
the learning opportunity coincides withthe learning opportunity coincides with
the life task at handthe life task at hand
 Identified developmental tasks specific toIdentified developmental tasks specific to
white, middle-class North Americanswhite, middle-class North Americans

8. Abraham MaslowAbraham Maslow
 Development as reaching self-actualizationDevelopment as reaching self-actualization
 Accepting of themselves and othersAccepting of themselves and others
 Problem-centered not self-centeredProblem-centered not self-centered
 Have spontaneityHave spontaneity
 Have had mystical or spiritual experiencesHave had mystical or spiritual experiences
 Resist conformity to cultureResist conformity to culture
 Need for privacyNeed for privacy
 Deep relationships with a few special othersDeep relationships with a few special others
 Have creativityHave creativity

9. Roger GouldRoger Gould
 Development is a process of confrontingDevelopment is a process of confronting
layer upon layer of childhood painlayer upon layer of childhood pain
 Development involves separation fromDevelopment involves separation from
childhood assumptionschildhood assumptions

10. Erik EriksonErik Erikson
 Development occurs as demands ofDevelopment occurs as demands of
society provoke struggle or crisis withinsociety provoke struggle or crisis within
the personthe person
 Eight psycho-social stages: five inEight psycho-social stages: five in
childhood based on Freudian conceptschildhood based on Freudian concepts
 Adult stagesAdult stages
 IntimacyIntimacy
 GenerativityGenerativity
 IntegrityIntegrity

11. Life Events TheoristsLife Events Theorists
Neugarten (1976)Neugarten (1976)
Baltes et al. (1980)Baltes et al. (1980)
Riegel (1976)Riegel (1976)
Merriam and Clark (1991)Merriam and Clark (1991)

12. NeugartenNeugarten
 Adult development defined by time factorsAdult development defined by time factors
 Social timeSocial time
 Development situations are not experiencedDevelopment situations are not experienced as crises ifas crises if
they occur “on time” as socially appropriatethey occur “on time” as socially appropriate
 Crises come from “off time” life events when experienceCrises come from “off time” life events when experience
differs from expectationsdiffers from expectations
 Historical time – creates age appropriate normsHistorical time – creates age appropriate norms
 Chronological age – increases ability to interpretChronological age – increases ability to interpret
experience in more refined waysexperience in more refined ways

13. Baltes et al.Baltes et al.
 Normative age-graded developmental influencesNormative age-graded developmental influences
 Physical maturity, commencement of education, death ofPhysical maturity, commencement of education, death of
parentsparents
 Normative, historically-determined eventsNormative, historically-determined events
 Economic depressions, wars, etcEconomic depressions, wars, etc
 Non-normative influences of great impactNon-normative influences of great impact
 Experiences unique to the individual such as contractingExperiences unique to the individual such as contracting
rare disease, winning the lottery, etcrare disease, winning the lottery, etc

14. RiegelRiegel
 Individual is a changing person in a changing worldIndividual is a changing person in a changing world
 Human development moves along 4 dimensionsHuman development moves along 4 dimensions
 Inner-biological (maturation, health)Inner-biological (maturation, health)
 Individual-psychological (self-concept, self-esteem)Individual-psychological (self-concept, self-esteem)
 Cultural-social (rules, regulations, social rituals)Cultural-social (rules, regulations, social rituals)
 Outer physical (natural world events)Outer physical (natural world events)
 When any 2 dimensions are in conflict,When any 2 dimensions are in conflict,
developmental change may occurdevelopmental change may occur

15. Merriam and ClarkMerriam and Clark
 LoveLove andand WorkWork are the two goals ofare the two goals of
successful adult developmentsuccessful adult development
 Found 3 patterns unrelated to age or genderFound 3 patterns unrelated to age or gender
 Divergent (when one is good, other is low)Divergent (when one is good, other is low)
 Steady/Fluctuating (one steady, other fluctuates)Steady/Fluctuating (one steady, other fluctuates)
 Parallel (Love and work happiness coincide)Parallel (Love and work happiness coincide)

16. Transitions TheoristsTransitions Theorists
Bridges (1980)Bridges (1980)
Sugarman (1986)Sugarman (1986)

17. William BridgesWilliam Bridges
 Life marked by a series of transitionsLife marked by a series of transitions
 Each individual has a characteristic way ofEach individual has a characteristic way of
dealing with transitions which will bedealing with transitions which will be
repeated throughout liferepeated throughout life
 Three recurring eventsThree recurring events
 Endings firstEndings first
 Neutral zoneNeutral zone
 New beginningNew beginning

18. SugarmanSugarman
 Change experience follows a characteristic patternChange experience follows a characteristic pattern
 Immobilization – sense of being overwhelmedImmobilization – sense of being overwhelmed
 Reaction – sharp mood swings from elation to despairReaction – sharp mood swings from elation to despair
 Denial - minimizing the impactDenial - minimizing the impact
 Letting go of the pastLetting go of the past
 Testing – exploring new optionsTesting – exploring new options
 Searching for meaning – a conscious effort to learn fromSearching for meaning – a conscious effort to learn from
the experiencethe experience
 Integration – feeling at home with the changeIntegration – feeling at home with the change