Child & adolescent review

CHILD AND
ADOLESCENT
DEVELOPMENT
Germa T. Borres, Ph.D.
Prepared by: JOSEPH ALVIN G. VALES

Nature and Nurture
• There is a continous controversy over whether the child’s
development is the product of her heredity (nature) or
environment (nurture).
• Nature is responsible for cognitive aspects such as mental
capacities, endowments, innate traits and other materials that
contributed to development as passed upon generations
through heredity. The inherent traits that an individuals
possesses are unfolded through maturation.
• Nurture is associated with environment that provides the
stimuli for nourishment and proper development of certain
organism.

Nature and Nurture
• Heredity which is biological transmission of traits and
characteristics from one.
• Maturation is the development or unfolding of traits
potentially present in the individual considering his/her
heredity endowment.
• Learning is the result of activities or day-to-day experiences of
the child.

KEY PRINCIPLES OF LIFE-SPAN
DEVELOPMENT
1. Development is lifelong – each period of development is
influenced by what happened before and will affect what is
to come. Each period has its own unique characteristics and
value.
2. Development depends on history and context – each person
development is within a specific set of circumstances or
conditions defined by place and time.
3. Development is multi-dimensional and multi-directional –
development throughout involves a balance of growth and
decline, cephacaudal direction and proximodistal direction.

DEVELOPMENT
4. Development is pliable and plastic – plasticity means
modifiability of performance, many abilities, such as
memory strength and endurance can be significantly
improved with training and practice, even in later life.
However, the potential for changes has limits.
5. Early foundations are critical – the foundations laid during
the first two years of life are critical (between 8 to 18
months); early patterns so persist, but they are not
unchangeable, change is likely to occur when an individual
a. Receives help and guidance in making the change
b. Significant poeple treat the individual in new and different
ways
c. There is a strong motivation on the part of the individual.

DEVELOPMENT
6. The role of maturation and learning in development
7. All individuals are different – all poeple are genetically and
biologically different from one another even identical twins.
8. Each phase of development has a characteristic pattern of
behavior – when individuals adaptasity to environmental
demands (period of equilibrium) and if there are difficulties
in adaptation (periods of disequilibrium).
9. Each phase of development has hazards – it involves
adjustment, problems either physical, psychological and
environmental.

DEVELOPMENT
10. Development is aided by stimulation from significant others;
most development will occur as a result of maturation and
environmental experiences, stimulating by directly by
encouraging the individual to use an ability which is in the
process of developing.
11. There is social expectation for every stage of development
or developmental tasks.
12. There are traditional beliefs about poeple olf all ages.

HAVIGHURT’SDEVELOPMENTTASKSDURING
THELIFESPAN(Associety’sexpectations)
Babyhood and Early Childhood
• Learning to take solid food
• Learning to walk
• Learning to talk
• Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
• Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
• Learning to distinguish right from wrong and beginning to
develop a conscience
• Getting ready to read

Late Childhood
• Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
• Building a wholesome attitude towards oneself as a growing
organism
• Learning to get along with age mates
• Beginning to decelop approriate masculine or feminine social
roles
• Developing a conscience, a sense of morality and a scale of
values
• Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and
calculating
• Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions
• Achieving personal independence

Adolescense
• Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of
both sexes
• Achieving a masculine or feminin social role
• Accepting one’s physique and using one’s body effectively
• Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible
behavior
• Achieving emotional independence from parents and other
adults
• Preparing for an economic career
• Preparing for marriage and family life
• Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as guide to
behavior

Early Adulthood
• Getting started in an occupation
• Selecting a mate
• Learning to live with a marriage partner
• Starting a family
• Rearing children
• Managing a home
• Taking on civic responsibility
• Finding a congenial social group

Middle Age
• Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
• Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy
adults
• Developing adult leisure-time activities
• Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
• Accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle
age
• Adjusting to aging parents

Childandadolescentdevelopment
• Child and adolescent psychology are braches of
developmental psychology devoted to the growtth and
changes happening from conception through the beginning of
adulthood.

MajorChildDevelopmentTheoriesand
Theorists
• Though manyh sciecntist and researchers have approached
the study of child development over the last hundred or so
years, only a few of the theories that have resulted have stood
the teat of time and have proven to be widely influential.
Among this core group of theories are five that will serve as
the basis for the documents in this series.

Frued’sPsychosexual Theory
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who
came to believe that the way parents dealt with children’s basic
sexual and aggressive desires would determine how their
personalities developed and whether or not they would end up
well-adjusted as adults.
Stages of Sexual Development
Each stage focused on sexual activity and the ppleasure
recieved from a particular area of the body. ORAL PHASE,
children are focused on the pleasures that they receive from
sucking and biting with their mouth.

ANAL PHASE, this focus shifts to the anus as they begin
toilet training and attempt to control their bowels. PHALLIC
STAGE, the focus moves to genital stimulation and the sexual
identification that comes with having or not a penis.
During this phase, Frued thought that children turn their
interest and love toward parent of the opposite sex and begin to
strongly resent the aprent of the same sex.
He called this idea the Oedipus Complex as it closely
mirrored the events of an ancient Greek tragic play in which a
king named Oedipus manages to marry his mother and kill his
father. The Phallic/Oedipus stage was thought to be followed by
a period of Latency during which sexual and interest were
temporarily nonexistent.

Anotherpart of Freud’s theory focused on identifying the
parts of consciousness. Freud though that all babies are initially
dominated by unconscious, instinctual and selfish urges for
immediate gratification which he labeled the Id.
As babies attempt and fail to get all their whims met,
they develop a more realistic appreciation of what is realistic
and possible, which Freud called the “Ego”.
Over time, babies al;so learn about and come to
internalize and represent their parents’ values and rules. These
internalized rules, which he called the “Super-Ego”, are the basis
for the developing chils’s conscience that struggles with the
concepts of right and wrong and works with the Ego to control
the immediate gratification urges of the Id.

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) used Frued’s work as starting
place to develop atheory about human stage development from
birth to death. In contrast to Freud’s focus on sexuality, Erikson
focused on how peoples’ sense of identity develops; how poeple
or fail to develop abilities about themselves which allow them to
become productive, satisfied members of society.
Each stage is associated with a time of life and a general
age span. For each stage, Erikson’s theory explains types of
stimulation children need to master that stage and become
productive and well-adjusted members of society and explains
the types of problems and developmental delays that can result
when this stimulation does not occur.
Erickson’sPsychosocial Theory

• Trust versus mistrust;
• Autonomy versus shame and doubt;
• Initiative versus guilt;
• Industry versus inferiority;
• Identity versus confusion
• Intimacy verusus isolation;
• Generativity versus stagnation;
• Integrity versus despair.
StagesofPsychosocialTheory

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) descrbed three of
moreal development which described the process through
which porplr learn to discriminate right from wrong and to
develop increasingly sophisticated appreciations of morality.
Kohlberg’s first ‘preconventional’ level describes children
whose understanding of morality is essentially only driven by
consequences. Essntially, “might makes right” to a
preconventional mind, and they worry about what is right in
worng so they don’t get in trouble.
Kohlberg’sMoralUnderstandingTheory

Second stage ‘conventional’ morality describes poeple
who act in moral ways because they believe that followuing the
rules is the best way to promote good personal relationships
and a healthy community.
The final “post conventional’ level describes poeple
whose of morality transcend what the rules or laws say.instead
of just following rules without questioning them,
‘postconventional’ stage poeple determine what is moral based
on a set of values or beliefs they think are right all the time.
Kohlberg’sMoralUnderstandingTheory

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1990), created a
cognitive-development stage theory that described how
children’s ways of thinking developed as they interacted with
the world around them. Infants and young children understand
the world much differently than adults do, and as they explore,
their mind learns how to think in ways that better fit with
reality.
Piget’s theory has four stages: sensorimotor,
prooperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
During the sesorimotor stage, which often last from birth to age
two, children are just beginning to learn how to learn.
Piaget-Cognitive-DevelopmentalTheory

During the preoperational stage, which often lasts from
ages two thought seven, children start to use mental symbols to
understand and to interact with the world, and they begin to
learn language and to engage in pretend play. In the concrete
operational stage that follows, lasting from ages seven through
eleven, children gain the ability to think logically to solve
problems and to organize information they learn. However, they
remain limited to considering only concrete, not abstract,
information because at this stage the capability for abstract
thought isn’t well developed yet.

Finally, during the formal operational stage, which often
lasts from age eleven on, adolescents learn how to think more
abstractly to solve and to think symbolically, e.g., about things
that aren’t really there concretely in front of them. As is the case
with Erikcon and Kohlberg, Piaget’s ideas will be developed in
greater depth in future documents.

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed the
ecologicaln systems theory to explain how everything in a child
and the child’s environment affects how a child grows and
develops.
He labeled different aspects or levels of the wnvironment
that influence children’s development, including the
microsystems, the microsystem is the small, immediate
environment the child lives in. Children’s microsystems will
include any immediate relationships or organizations they
interacts wit, such as their immediate family or caregivers and
their school or daycare.
Bronfenbrenner-EcologicalSystemsTheory

Mesosystem, describes how the different parts of a
child’s microsystem work together for the sake of the child. For
example, if a child’s caregivers take an active role in a child’s
school, suchn as going to parent-teacher conferences and
watching their child’s soccer games, this will help ensure the
child’s overall growth. In contrast, if the child’s two sets of
caretaker, mom with step-dad and dad with step-mom, disagree
how to best raise the child and give the child conflicting lessons
when they see him, this will hinder the child’s growth in
different channels.

Exosystem, level includes the other poeple and places
that the child herself may not interact with often herself but
thatb still have a large affect on her, such as parents’
workplaces, extended family members, the neighberhood, etc.
For example, if a child’s parent gets laid off from work, that may
have negative affects on the child if her parents are unable to
pay rent or to buy groceries; however,if her parent receives a
promotion and a raise at work, this may have a positive affect on
the child because her parents will be btter able to give her her
physical needs.

Macrosystem, which is the largest and most remote set
of poeple and things to a child but which still has a great
influence over the child. The macrosystem includes things such
as the relative freedoms permitted by the national government,
cultural values, the economy, wars, etc. These things can also
affect a child either positively or negatively.

Four stages of cognitive-development
• Sensorimotor stage- birth 2 yrs. Infants think by acting on the world
with their eyes, eas, and hands. As a result the invent ways of
solving sensorimotor problems such as finding hiddent toys.
• Preoperational stage- 2-7 yrs. Preschool children use symbols to
represent thier earlier sensorimotor discoveries. Development of
language and make-believe play takes place.
• Concrete operational stage- 7-11 yrs. Children’s reasoning becomes
logical. School-age children understand that a certain amount of a
substance remains the same even after it’s appearance changes (ex.
Liquid in two different sized containers). Thinking is not yet abstract
in this stage.
• Formal operational stage- 11 years on. The capacity for abstraction
permits adolescents to reason with symbols that do not refer to
objects in the real world, as in advanced mathematics.

Ecological systems theory views the person as developing
within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of
the surrounding environment.
• Microsystem- innermost level of the environment. Refers to
activities and interaction patterns in the person’s immediate
surroundings.
• Mesosystem- refers to connections between Microsystems that
foster development.
• Exosystem- social settings that do not contain the developing person
but nevertheless affect experiences in immediate settings.
• Macrosystem- consist of the values, laws, customs, and resources of
a particular culture. In this system, the priority that the
macrosystem gives to the needs of children and adults affects the
support they receive at the inner levels of the environment.
• Chronosystem- the environment is dynamic and ever-changing. The
temporal dimension of Bronfenbrenner’s model.

• Sociocultural theory focuses on how culture is transmitted to the next
generation.
Culture – the values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group.
Social interaction – cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of
society, according to Vygotsky, is necessary for children to acquire the ways of
thinking and behaving that make up comnunites culture.
Vygotsky emphasize the role of direct teaching.
Private Speech – the inner dialoge that children use when encountering difficult
tasks.
Zone of proximal development – the range of tasks too difficult for the child to do
alone but can be done with the help of others. Children then take the language of
these dialogues, make it their own private speech, and use this to organize their
own independent efforts.
Vygotsky-SocioculturalTheory

Developmental tasks-skills, knowledge, functions, and
attitudes that individuals have to acquire at certain points in their lives
through physical maturation, social expectations, and personal effort.
Havighurst’s * major tasks:
1. Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively.
2. Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both
sexes.
3. Achieving a masculine or feminine role.
4. Achieving emotinal independence from parents and other adults.
5. Preparing for an economic career.
6. Preparing for marriage and family life.
7. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior
8. Acquiring a set of values and ethical system as a guide to
behavior-developing ideology.
Havighurst-DevelopmentalTasksandEducation

The end...

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