Walls are vertical elements that enclose and define interior spaces of a building. They must provide structural strength, exclude weather, and meet architectural requirements. There are different types of walls categorized by location, structure, and materials. Common wall materials include concrete, masonry units like stone and brick, wood, and glass. Masonry walls are constructed using blocks stacked with mortar and can be load-bearing or non-load bearing.
- Generalities about the use of Reinforced Concrete in Buildings and Civil Works
- Principle of the Reinforced Concrete
- Composition and Pouring of Concrete
- Steel Reinforcement
- Generalities about the use of Reinforced Concrete in Buildings and Civil Works
- Principle of the Reinforced Concrete
- Composition and Pouring of Concrete
- Steel Reinforcement
Building material: is any material which is used for construction purposes in the form of solid, semi-solid or liquid, processed or unprocessed (raw material). Basically the building materials are identified into two types-the natural and synthetic products.
Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, rocks, sand, and wood, even twigs and leaves, have been used to construct buildings.
Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic, such as fired bricks and clay blocks, ceramics, cement, composites, concrete, thermal and sound insulation, glass, metal, plastics, polymers , etc.
Building material: is any material which is used for construction purposes in the form of solid, semi-solid or liquid, processed or unprocessed (raw material). Basically the building materials are identified into two types-the natural and synthetic products.
Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, rocks, sand, and wood, even twigs and leaves, have been used to construct buildings.
Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic, such as fired bricks and clay blocks, ceramics, cement, composites, concrete, thermal and sound insulation, glass, metal, plastics, polymers , etc.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
2. 2
DEFINITION
Walls are vertical/inclined elements of a
building that enclose, separate and
protect its interior spaces.
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PURPOSE
• Provide required level of enclosure and define space
REQUIREMENTS
1. TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS
i) Strength
Supporting roofs & their own weight,
Transfer load on it to beams,
Resist any lateral loads.
Retain earth pressure.
ii) Exclude Weather
iii) Insulate sound and temperature
iv) Resist fire transmission
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2. ARCHITECTURAL REQUIREMENTS
Walls are the most visible form-defining elements & thus
become primary elements that define the aesthetic
character of a building.
Shape & surface characteristic of walls are
responsible for making visual composition.
Factors affecting appearance /visual pattern/ are:
TEXTURE, COLOR, FORM & SCALE
Which in turn affects, choice of materials.
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TYPES
Wall types can be categorized on the bases of:
• Location of The Wall
External walls
Internal Partition walls
• Structural Requirement
Load Bearing walls
Non Load Bearing walls
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Types of walls based on:
• Material Used
Wood
Brick
Stone
Concrete Blocks
Concrete
Glass
Metal …etc.
• Material Composition
Block Walls
Monolithic
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Can be structural or non structural
Economical when identical
Advantages
Better quality control of concrete elements
Elements can be cast and erected in all
weather conditions,
Fast construction time
Types of precast concrete panels-
1-under sill cladding panels
2-storey high or more non structural
cladding panels
3-structural cladding panels
4-permanent shuttering-i.e.. cladding units
used as permanent formwork to in-situ
concrete.
CONCRETE WALLS - Precast Concrete
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MASONRY WALLS
Masonry is the term used to refer
construction using pieces of construction
materials made in to blocks and stacked
together using different binding
mechanisms.
MORTAR
Used to bind masonry units together. In the early
days masonry was just piled up one on top of
the other to create rubble wall. Later binding
materials such as mud, lime and recently
cement mortar started to be used. Cement
mortar for masonry is made of Portland
cement, hydrated lime, sand and water.
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The advantages of using mortar
are:
Water exclusion: the mortar blocks passage of
water through masonry walls
Wind exclusion
Cushions the masonry units, to stand stable
They also emphasize the pattern in which the
masonry is arranged.
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MASONRY WALLS
Strong in compressive strength and weak in tension
loads because of the weak points at the joints between
blocks.
It is labor intensive and time taking,
Economical
It can be shaped in to different forms fairly easily.
Mostly have naturally rich color and texture
Most masonry materials are also durable
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General practice during stone
masonry construction:
Stone should be hard and strong,
free from crack ,fissures, vents or
any other
Stone should be laid in its natural
bed with proper bond and formation
of vertical joints should be avoided.
No tensile stress should be
developed
Masonry work should be raised
uniformly whenever possible so that
non uniform loading on the
foundation occurs
Stone block should be
soaked in water before use
so that it does not absorb
much water from the mortar.
Mortar should be strong and
proportion of its ingredients
should be good. Compo
mortar is used for work above
ground.
Facing and backing stone
should be well bonded by
through stones
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MASONRY WALLS – STONE: Construction –
Random Rubble Coursed Rubble
Coursed Ashlars Random Ashlars
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MASONRY WALLS - Brick
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MASONRY WALLS - Brick
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MASONRY WALLS - Brick Bonds
Stretcher Bond Common Bond
English Bond Flemish Bond
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MASONRY WALLS - Concrete Blocks
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Compare!
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MASONRY WALLS - Cladding and Combinations
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POINTING
Pointing is the racking out and filling with cement
rich mortar of masonry joints
Water exclusion: the pointing makes the mortar
water proof exclusion: fills up air holes
They also emphasize the pattern in which the
masonry is arranged.
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GLASS BLOCKS
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Wood Frame Walls
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READ MORE
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