The document provides details on the construction of buildings and roads. It discusses the classification, measurement, and construction of buildings, foundations, retaining walls, and breast walls. It also covers road surveys, the importance and classification of roads, gradients, and the construction of cemented and tarred roads. Foundations transmit loads from buildings to the soil and include shallow and deep types. Retaining walls hold back earth to prevent landslides while breast walls are constructed to prevent sliding at the back of roads.

1. CONTENTS
1. BUILDING
1. Classification of building according to occupancy 1-3
2. Detail of measurement 4-14
2. FOUNDATION
1. Classification of foundation 15-16
2. Foundation Plan 17
3. Excavation of Foundation 18
4. Footing 19
5. Columns 20-21
3. RETAINING WALL
1. Introduction 22
2. Type of Retaining Wall 23
3. Estimation of Retaining Wall 24
4. BREAST WALL
1. Introduction 25
2. Estimation of Breast Wall 26-27
5. ROAD
1. Introduction 28
2. Road Survey 29-30
3. Importance of Roads 31-32
4. Classification of Roads 32-37
5. Gradients 38-40
6. Constructed of cemented Road 41-42
7. Tarring of Road 43

2. BUILDING
Any relatively permanent and closed structure on a plot of land, having a rot and
window.
CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDING
ACCORDING TO OCCUPANCY
1. Residential building
2. Industrial building
3. Public building
4. Commercial building
5. Institutional building
6. Hazardous building
7. Storage building

3. CONSTRUCTION WORK OF A BUILDING
1. LAYOUT : Firstly measured the outer dimension of building i.e. X. Then
marked the centerline of each load bearing walls constructed. The thickness
of brick masonry wall is 0.23 m etc.
2. GROUND LEVEL :- The ground level has taken 190.0 cm.
3. FOUNDATION LEVEL :- The founding level has taken 130.0 cm.
4. FOUNDATION BED :- The foundation bed is constructed with C.C. 1:6:12 (1
cement : 6 sand : 12 graded stone aggregate 40 mm nominal size).
The thickness of foundation bed concrete is taken as 0.15 m.

4. FOUNDATION
Foundation is the part of the structure which transmits the load of the super
structure to the soil underneath. Foundation is also known as substructure.
CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDATION
1. SHALLOW FOUNDATION
2. DEEP FOUNDATION
1. SHALLOW FOUNDATION
The foundation whose depth is equal to or less than width is known as
shallow foundation. A shallow foundation transmits the load to the strata
below at a shallow depth.

5. Types of shallow foundation
· Spread footing
· Strip footing
· Combined footing
· Strap footing
· Mat or raft footing
· Isolated footing
2. DEEP FOUNDATION
The foundation whose depth is equal to or greater than width is known as deep
foundation. When the soil at or near the surface of ground is not capable of
supporting a structure, deep foundation are required to transfer the load to deeper
strata.
Types of deep foundation :
· Well foundation
· Pile foundation
· Pier foundation

6. FOUNDATION PLAN
The foundation plan of a structure is prepared to any convenient showing
all the necessary measurement. The north line shown on the foundation plan of the
building in order in order to have the desire orientation of the building at the site.

7. SETTING OUT FOUNDATION PLAN ON GROUND
Before construction of foundation the whole area should be cleared of any grass,
shrubs and trees etc. So then the position of the building should be carefully marked
on the ground.
The trenches to receive the foundation are then set on the surface of ground
before there actual excavation is started.

8. EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATION
After setting out the trenches, their extraction work is carried out between
their outer line by means of pick axes or Kassie.
The use of the excavation instrument like chisels, jumper, wedges, hammers,
iron pans, baskets etc.
The size of footing = 150*150cm to 300*280 cm
Thickness of footing=45cm

9. Column Section x-x

10. FOOTING
Size at bottom =230*250cm Size at top = 220*240cm
Lean concrete 1:2:4 (1 cement : 2 sand : aggregate) is for the base footing, beam,
column slab.

12. Isolated Footing Drawing
Open Newel Half-Turn Stair Case

13. COLUMN :-
Total No. of column =40
COLUMN SIZE :-
40*60cm
Main reinforcement = 4 No. 32 mm dia.
= 6 No. 30 mm dia.
= 6 No. 25mm dia.
Tiles = 8 mm dia.
Cover = 40mm (2 inch)

15. DIAPHRAGM WALL
In structural engineering, a diaphragm is a structural system used to transfer lateral loads
to shear walls or frames primarily through in-plane shear stress. These lateral loads are
usually wind and earthquake loads, but other lateral loads such as lateral earth
pressure or hydrostatic pressure can also be resisted by diaphragm action.
The diaphragm of a structure often does double duty as the floor system or roof system in
a building, or the deck of a bridge, which simultaneously supports gravity loads.
Diaphragms are usually constructed of plywood or oriented strand
board in timber construction; metal deck or composite metal deck in steel construction; or
a concrete slab in concrete construction.
The two primary types of diaphragm are flexible and rigid.

16. Spacing For Toilet-Bathroom
LATERAL TIES
Ties are for many purposes including providing confinement to the core concrete. In axial
load carrying capacity of column also it influences by means of providing confinement and
not as a direct load carrying element like main steel. If you see stress-strain plots for
unconfined and confined concrete, you will notice two peculiar differences. First, the peak
stress for confined concrete is slightly higher (depending upon level of confinement) than
that of unconfined concrete and secondly the ultimate strain value for confined concrete is
much higher than that of unconfined concrete. This simply means that confinement has
more useful influence on ductility rather than strength

17. RETAINING WALL
The wall which retain the back filling of the soil. When these walls are
constructed slope is generally kept as 1:4.
Retaining walls can also help protect against erosion on susceptible sites. The
requirements or a functional retaining wall include: structural stability,
durability against the exposed environment, and provision of drainage.

19. TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS
1) GRAVITY RETAINING WALLS: These walls use their own weight and any
captured soil/fill weight to resist the lateral soil pressure.
2) PILED RETAINING WALLS: These walls use the embedded depth of vertical
posts and the strength of the posts to resist lateral soil forces.
3) CANTILEVER RETAINING WALLS: These walls cantilever vertically from the
concrete footing and typically resist overturning by the mass of the soil/material
on the heel of the footing.

20. ESTIMATION OF RETAINING WALL
DETAIL OF MEASUREMENT
Excavation area = 4.22 * (0.45 + 3.40)/2 = 8.12 Sqm.
Back filling = .060 * 5.55 - 3.33 Sqm.
1. Excavation work : 1*15.00 * 8.12 = 121.85 cum
2. Dry masonry = 1*15*7.30 = 109.5 cum
3. Back filling = 1*15*3.33 = 49.95 cum

21. BREAST WALL
The wall which prevent the land sliding of the soil. These walls are generally
constructed backside of the road. In the front face is generally kept in slope and the
slope is taken as 1:3. The weep hole are provided in the breast wall in order to
remove the rain water and soil pressure.
ESTIMATION OF BREAST WALL

22. Cutting area : 1/2 * 1.63 * 2.64 = 2.15 Sqm.
Excavation area : 1.82 * (0.30 + 0.87)/2 = 1.06 Sqm.
If total wall will be executed in C.M. 1:6 then
Portion (a) = 1*10*1/2*1.73 * .0.57 = 4.93 cum
Portion (b) = 1*10*(0.90 + 1.73)/2*2.14 = 32.09 cum
Total = portion (a) + portion (b) = 4.93 + 32.09 = 37.02 cum
DETAIL OF MEASUREMENT
Cutting work : 1*10*2.15 = 21.50 cum
Excavation work : 1*10*1.06 = 10.60 cum
Dry masonry : 1*10*2.44 = 24.40 cum

23. INTRODUCTION
Road are the vital means of communication on land. The progress and
entire progress of the country dependent upon the efficient and wide spread
network of the roads. In this project we have done survey of the road and
designed the road.

24. ROAD
Road is a structure constructed of different material (earth, gravel,
bitumen etc.) to facilitate movement of vehicle, cart, cyclist etc. from one place
to another place.
ROAD SURVEY
The survey conducted to collect the important data and information for the
location, design and construction of road. Various types of survey related to the
road construction that we have done are:
1. Reconnaissance
2. Preliminary Survey
3. Location Survey
1. Reconnaissance Survey
A preliminary and a rapid examination of the region with reference to its
natural features without the help of instrument is known as reconnaissance and
conducted to determine the location of the road with respect to local condition
reconnaissance survey.

25. 2) Preliminary Survey
The accurate survey conducted along the desirable routes as
recommended by reconnaissance survey in order to obtain a sufficient
data for final location survey is termed
3) Location Survey
The survey carried along the finalized route after preliminary survey by
transferring the proposed central line to the actual ground and collecting
other related information termed as location survey. It includes following
stages:
· Location of central line
· Detailed survey
IMPORTANCE OF THE ROADS
The importance of the roads can be easily judged from the following parts:
1) Conveyance of Men & Material:-
They facilitate conveyance of people, goods, raw material, manufactured
items etc.
2) Source of communication:
They act as only source of communication in high altitude and mountains
region.

26. 3) In maintaining laws and order:
They help in maintaining law and order in country.
4) As a feeder:
They act as a feeder for railway, waterways, and airways.
5) Employment opportunity:
They provides the more employments for the people.
6) Social and cultural ties:
They help in promoting social and ties along people living in different parts
of the country.
7) Play role in defence of country:
They play very important role in defence of country war days.

27. CLASSIFICATION OF THE ROADS:
1) According to the location
2) According the importance
3) According to the traffic
4) According to tonnage
1) Classification according to the location:
According to the location and financial
responsibility nonurban roads in India can be
classified in to five categories:
a) National Highway (NH)
b) State highway (SH)
c) Major district roads (MDR)
d) Other district roads (ODR)
e) Village roads (VR)

28. a) National Highway:-
The main highway running through the length and breadth in the country
connecting major parts, foreign highway and capital of state etc are known
as national highway.
These highways constitute the main arteries of transport in the country
and are also of military importance. Nation highway would have
carriageway of at least two lane width. They should have modern type of
surfacing.
b) State Highway:-
The highway linking district headquarters, cities, within the state or
connecting them with national highway of neighboring state are known as
state highway. These highways are called provincial highways. These
highways serve as internal route of traffic to and from district road within
the state. They should have modern type of surfacing.
c) Major district roads:
The important roads within a district serving areas of production and
market and connecting this place with each other or with the main
highway are known as major district road. The road should be couple and

29. taking road traffic in the rural area throughout the year without any
interruption due to bridge crossing. Major district road should have at
least metaled single lane carriageway.
d) Other district roads:
The road serving rural areas & production and providing them without let
to market centre, Tehsil headquarters, railways station etc are known as
ODR.
e) Village roads:
The road connecting village or group & villages with each other and
nearest road of category are known as village roads. These roads are very
important from the rural point of view. They are generally not metaled
and should have single lane width of stabilized soil or graved.
2) Classification according to importance:
According to importance of connecting holy places, stations of strategies,
important roads are classified as following categories:

30. a) Class 1 roads
b) Class 2 roads
c) Class 3 roads
3) Classification according to traffic:
According to the traffic roads are classified into following categories:
a) Very heavy traffic roads (which carries above 600 vehicle/day)
b) Heavy traffic roads (which carries 251-600 vehicle/ day)
c) Medium traffic roads (which carries 70-2500 vehicle/ day)
d) Light traffic roads (which carries below 70 vehicle/day)
4) Classification of the roads according to tonnage:
According to total tonnage per day roads are classified into following
categories:
a) Very heavy traffic roads (which carries over 1524 metric tones/day)
b) Heavy traffic roads (which caries over 1070 to 1524 metric tons/day)

31. GRADIENTS
The rate of rise and fall provided to the formation of a road along its
alignment is called grade or gradient. It is the longitudinal slope provided
to the formation of a road along it’s alignments.
Mathematically:
Gradient = vertical distance/horizontal distance = H/D Objectives of
providing gradients:
· To connect terminal stations situated at different levels.
· To make earthwork economically since perfectly level roads involves
more cutting and filling.
· To provide effective drainage of rainwater.
· To construct side drain economically with the concrete depth below
ground level.
· To reduce maintenance cost of roads.

32. TYPES OF GRADIENT
a) Ruling gradient:
The gradient usually adopting while making the alignment of roads is
called ruling gradient.
b) Limiting gradient:
The gradient steeps than the ruling gradients which ma be used in
restricted road length when the later is not feasible is called maximum or
limiting gradients.
c) Exceptional gradients:
The gradients than the limiting which may be used in short length of the
road only in introductory situation is exception is exceptional gradient.
d) Average gradients:
The total rise and fall between any two points along the alignment of a
road divided by the horizontal distances between them is called average
gradients.
e) Floating gradient:
The gradient on which a motor vehicle moving with the same speed
without any application of power or breaks is called floating gradient.

33. CONSTRUCTED OF CEMENTED ROADS
Grade
M30
1:1:2
Road thickness 30cm
Width of roads 4m
After concreting vibrator is used for comes and settle down of the concrete
after 24m gap 2m steel roads are moved in the length wise. These are known as
extension joints. In the end it is finished by straight edge or other wooden
throats.
Thick 7.5 cm and size 40 to 63 mm and last layer of course aggregate. Thick 7.5
cm and size of aggregate is 20 mm. So layer is tempering by help of roller the to
laid on bitumen thick 2 cm in centre and ½ cm side of the road and tempering
by roller is 4 or 5 times.

34. TARRING OF ROAD
Tarring work is done before a road is constructed with coaltar/ bitumen or
any suitable material. The object of tarring is also rise the level of the road to
the required level.
The started filling the soil and tempering the roller and then bolder filling
up to 13 cm and their size 40 to 90 mm and next layer bearing.