To perform his experiments, how did Mendel prevent pea flowers from self-pollinating and control their cross-pollination?
He cut away the pollen-bearing male parts of a flower and dusted that flower with pollen from another plant.
Pathological analysis of body fluids with lab investigations,
Including Amniotic fluid, Semen analysis, Synovial fluid, Gastric fluid
Other body fluids: Sweat,saliva,tear
It describes the analysis of amniotic fluid fin the laboratory and its Significance. Prepared by Sintayehu Ambachew Wondemagegn
at University of Gondar
Pathological analysis of body fluids with lab investigations,
Including Amniotic fluid, Semen analysis, Synovial fluid, Gastric fluid
Other body fluids: Sweat,saliva,tear
It describes the analysis of amniotic fluid fin the laboratory and its Significance. Prepared by Sintayehu Ambachew Wondemagegn
at University of Gondar
Oligohydramnios by dr alka mukherjee dr apurva mukherjee nagpur m.s.alka mukherjee
• Oligohydramnios refers to amniotic fluid volume that is less than expected for gestational age. It is typically diagnosed by ultrasound examination and may be described qualitatively (eg, reduced amniotic fluid volume) or quantitatively (eg, amniotic fluid index ≤5 cm, single deepest pocket <2 cm).
• Oligohydramnios may be idiopathic or have a maternal, fetal, or placental cause The fetal prognosis depends on several factors, including the underlying cause, the severity (reduced versus no amniotic fluid), and the gestational age at which oligohydramnios occurs. Because an adequate volume of amniotic fluid is critical to normal fetal movement and lung development and for cushioning the fetus and umbilical cord from uterine compression, pregnancies complicated by oligohydramnios from any cause are at risk for fetal deformation, pulmonary hypoplasia, and umbilical cord compression.
• Oligohydramnios is associated with an increased risk for fetal or neonatal death, which may be related to the underlying cause of the reduced amniotic fluid volume or due to sequelae of the reduced amniotic fluid volume.
• This topic will discuss issues related to oligohydramnios. Methods of amniotic fluid volume assessment are reviewed separately.
• Oligohydramnios occurs when the amniotic fluid is < 5th centile for gestational age.
• The most common causes are premature rupture of membranes (often missed by the mother) and placental insufficiency, however structural abnormalities such as renal agenesis should be considered.
• Prognosis is linked to gestation at diagnosis and likely development of pulmonary hypoplasia and premature delivery.
• Treatment is by optimising gestation of delivery
Majority of fetal deaths occur in the antepartum period.
There is progressive decline in maternal deaths all over the world. Currently more interest is focused to evaluate the fetal health. The primary objective of antenatal assessment is to avoid fetal death.
AMNIOTIC FLUID AND AMNIOTIC FLUID EMBOLISM, Liquoir Amnii.pptxYashpa2ar
This ppt is made for bsc/msc.nursing for obstetrics and midwifery nurse about amniotic Fluid and amniotic Fluid embolism.in which including
Amniotic fluid
Introduction
Definition
Charector
Abnormal colour of amniotic Fluid
Method of amniotic fluid measurements
Amniotic fluid embolim
Introduction
Definition
Risk factors
Sign and symtoms
What mother reports
Pathophysiology
Investigation
Management
Midwifery nurses action
Ppt creator:YASH D.PAWAR
Tolerance to tissue and cell antigens can be
induced by injection of hemopoietic (stem)
cells in neonatal or severely
immunocompromised (by lethal irradiation
or drug treatment) animals.
Also, grafting of allogeneic bone marrow or
thymus in early life results in tolerance to
the donor type cells and tissues. Such
animals are known as chimeras. These
findings are of significant practical
application in bone marrow grafting
Approximately 99% of the filtrate is reabsorbed back into the blood in the peritubular capillaries & Only 1% of filtrate urine.
Reabsorbed substances not lost in the urine, but are carried by the peritubular capillaries to the venous system → heart
Some reabsorption is passive & most is active transport
Oligohydramnios by dr alka mukherjee dr apurva mukherjee nagpur m.s.alka mukherjee
• Oligohydramnios refers to amniotic fluid volume that is less than expected for gestational age. It is typically diagnosed by ultrasound examination and may be described qualitatively (eg, reduced amniotic fluid volume) or quantitatively (eg, amniotic fluid index ≤5 cm, single deepest pocket <2 cm).
• Oligohydramnios may be idiopathic or have a maternal, fetal, or placental cause The fetal prognosis depends on several factors, including the underlying cause, the severity (reduced versus no amniotic fluid), and the gestational age at which oligohydramnios occurs. Because an adequate volume of amniotic fluid is critical to normal fetal movement and lung development and for cushioning the fetus and umbilical cord from uterine compression, pregnancies complicated by oligohydramnios from any cause are at risk for fetal deformation, pulmonary hypoplasia, and umbilical cord compression.
• Oligohydramnios is associated with an increased risk for fetal or neonatal death, which may be related to the underlying cause of the reduced amniotic fluid volume or due to sequelae of the reduced amniotic fluid volume.
• This topic will discuss issues related to oligohydramnios. Methods of amniotic fluid volume assessment are reviewed separately.
• Oligohydramnios occurs when the amniotic fluid is < 5th centile for gestational age.
• The most common causes are premature rupture of membranes (often missed by the mother) and placental insufficiency, however structural abnormalities such as renal agenesis should be considered.
• Prognosis is linked to gestation at diagnosis and likely development of pulmonary hypoplasia and premature delivery.
• Treatment is by optimising gestation of delivery
Majority of fetal deaths occur in the antepartum period.
There is progressive decline in maternal deaths all over the world. Currently more interest is focused to evaluate the fetal health. The primary objective of antenatal assessment is to avoid fetal death.
AMNIOTIC FLUID AND AMNIOTIC FLUID EMBOLISM, Liquoir Amnii.pptxYashpa2ar
This ppt is made for bsc/msc.nursing for obstetrics and midwifery nurse about amniotic Fluid and amniotic Fluid embolism.in which including
Amniotic fluid
Introduction
Definition
Charector
Abnormal colour of amniotic Fluid
Method of amniotic fluid measurements
Amniotic fluid embolim
Introduction
Definition
Risk factors
Sign and symtoms
What mother reports
Pathophysiology
Investigation
Management
Midwifery nurses action
Ppt creator:YASH D.PAWAR
Tolerance to tissue and cell antigens can be
induced by injection of hemopoietic (stem)
cells in neonatal or severely
immunocompromised (by lethal irradiation
or drug treatment) animals.
Also, grafting of allogeneic bone marrow or
thymus in early life results in tolerance to
the donor type cells and tissues. Such
animals are known as chimeras. These
findings are of significant practical
application in bone marrow grafting
Approximately 99% of the filtrate is reabsorbed back into the blood in the peritubular capillaries & Only 1% of filtrate urine.
Reabsorbed substances not lost in the urine, but are carried by the peritubular capillaries to the venous system → heart
Some reabsorption is passive & most is active transport
Reabsorption-is the process of taking useful substances from the filtrate in to the blood (not to lost in the urine)
Reabsorption is selective process but filtration is non-selective
The kidneys produces 180 liters of filtrate per day and normal urinary output in per day 1 to 2 liters.
Hippocrates: ill health resulted due to changes in air, winds, water, climate, food, nature of soil and habits of people.
Varro: Disease was caused by animate particles invisible to naked eye where carried in air via the mouth and nose to body.
Fracastorius: Agent of communicable disease was living germs that transmitted by direct contact and indirect contact with human, animal and objects respectively.
No proof b/c no experimental study
Normocytic anemia with ineffective erythropoiesis (reduced reticulocyte count)
May be normochromic or hypochromic
Results from
Chronic inflammation (e.g. rheumatologic disease): Cytokines released by inflammatory cells cause macrophages to accumulate iron and not transfer it to plasma or developing red cells (iron block anemia)
Renal failure (erythropoietin from kidneys)
Endocrine (e.g. hypothyroid)
Hepatic disease
Bone marrow suppression (EPO is elevated)
The red cell indices include
Mean corpuscular volume (MCV)
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH)
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC)
Red cell distribution width (RDW) is another important red cell parameter obtained by electronic methods
RDW measures the variation in size of the red blood cells (degree of anisocytosis)
It must be remembered that the red cell count has the greatest potential error and must be performed with extreme care preferably using an electronic counter
Family Tabanidae
Large biting flies generally.
Three most important generas:
Stouts, Clegs (Haematopota)
Green heads, Horse flies (Tabanus)
Deer flies (Chrysops)
They can be pests to cattle, horses, and humans.
Each female fly can lay approximately 500 eggs in several batches of about 75 to 150. The eggs are white and are about 1.2 mm in length. Within a day, larvae (maggots) hatch from the eggs; they live and feed in (usually dead and decaying) organic material, such as garbage or feces. They are pale-whitish, 3–9 mm long, thinner at the mouth end, and have no legs. They live at least one week. At the end of their third instar, the maggots crawl to a dry cool place and transform into pupae, colored reddish or brown and about 8 mm long. The adult flies then emerge from the pupae. (This whole cycle is known as complete metamorphosis.) The adults live from two weeks to a month in the wild, or longer in benign laboratory conditions. After having emerged from the pupae, the flies cease to grow; small flies are not young flies but are instead the result of getting insufficient food during the larval stage.
The male mounts the female from behind
Some 36 hours after having emerged from the pupa, the female is receptive to mating.
The male mounts her from behind to inject sperm. Copulation takes between a few seconds to a couple of minutes.
[3] Normally the female mates only once, storing the sperm to use it repeatedly for laying several sets of eggs.
Adv. biopharm. APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMSAkankshaAshtankar
MIP 201T & MPH 202T
ADVANCED BIOPHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACOKINETICS : UNIT 5
APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS By - AKANKSHA ASHTANKAR
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
2. Acknowledgements
• Addisa Ababa University
• Jimma University
• Hawassa University
• Haramaya University
• University of Gondar
• American Society for Clinical Pathology
• Center for Disease Control and Prevention-Ethiopia
3. Chapter outline
• Introduction to Cerebrospinal fluid
• Routine laboratory assays
• Collection of sample
• Chemical analysis
• Morphological Examination
• Microbiological Examination
• Serological Examination
4. Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter the student will be able to:
1 State the functions of amniotic fluid.
2 Describe the formation and composition of amniotic fluid.
3 State indications for performing an amniocentesis.
4 Describe the specimen-handling and processing procedures for
testing amniotic fluid for bilirubin, fetal lung maturity (FLM),
and cytogenetic
analysis.
5 Discuss the principle of the spectrophotometric analysis for
evaluation of hemolytic disease of the newborn.
6 Interpret a Liley graph.
5. Learning Objectives cont’d
7 Describe the analysis of amniotic fluid for the detection of
neural tube disorders.
8 Explain the physiologic significance of the lecithin-
sphingomyelin (L/S) ratio.
9 State the relationship of phosphatidyl glycerol to FLM.
10 Discuss the principle of and sources of error for the L/S ratio,
Amniostat-FLM, Foam Stability
Index, and microviscosity tests for FLM.
11 Describe the relationship of lamellar bodies to FLM and the
laboratory tests performed
6. Amniotic Fluid
• It is liquid that surrounds the fetus in the amniotic cavity
– The primary function is to provide protective cushion for the fetus,
allow for movement, and regulate temperature.
• Amniocentesis is the fluid collection procedure in which a
sample of the amniotic fluid surrounding a fetus is removed
by means of a fine needle inserted through the abdomen and
into the uterus of the pregnant woman.
7. Function of Amniotic Fluid
• Amniotic fluid is present in the amnion, a membranous sac
• that surrounds the fetus.
• The primary functions of the fluid are to provide a protective
cushion for the fetus, allow fetal movement, stabilize the
temperature to protect the fetus from extreme temperature
changes, and to permit proper lung development.
• Exchanges of water and chemicals also take place between
the fluid, the fetus, and the maternal circulation
8.
9. Amniotic Fluid cont’d
• testing of amniotic fluid is frequently associated with
cytogenetic analysis, the clinical laboratory also
performs several significant tests on amniotic fluid.
• Because amniotic fluid is a product of fetal
metabolism, the constituents that are present in the
fluid provide information about the metabolic
processes taking place during—as well as the progress
of—fetal maturation.
• When conditions that adversely affect the fetus arise,
the danger to the fetus must be measured
• The tests used to determine the extent of fetal distress
and fetal maturity
10. Volume of Amniotic Fluid
• regulated by a balance b/n the production of fetal urine and
lung fluid and the absorption from fetal swallowing and
intramembranous flow.
• The amount of amniotic fluid increases throughout pregnancy,
reaching a peak of 1 L during the third trimester, and then
decreases prior to delivery. During the first trimester, the
approximately 35 mL (from the maternal circulation).
11. Volume of Amniotic Fluid cont’d
• During each episode of fetal breathing
movement, secreted lung liquid enters the
amniotic fluid, as evidenced by lung surfactants
that serve as an index of fetal lung maturity.
• After the first trimester, fetal urine is the major
contributor to the amniotic fluid volume.
• At the time that fetal urine production occurs,
fetal swallowing of the amniotic fluid begins and
regulates the increase in fluid from the fetal
urine.
12. Volume of Amniotic Fluid cont’d
• Failure of the fetus to begin results in excessive
accumulation of amniotic fluid (polyhydramnios) and
is an indication of fetal distress, often associated with
neural tube disorders.
• Polyhydramnios may be secondarily associated with
fetal structural anomalies, cardiac arrhythmias,
congenital infections, or chromosomal abnormalities.
• Increased fetal swallowing, urinary tract deformities,
and membrane leakage are possible causes of
decreased amniotic fluid (oligohydramnios).
15. Amniotic Fluid cont’d…
• Sample collection
– Collected by experienced professional
– A maximum of 30mL of fluid can be collected.
– The first 2 or 3 mL should be discarded because they
may contain maternal blood, tissue fluid, and maternal
cells.
– Sterile plastic syringes and conical centrifuge tubes
should be used for the collection and transportation of
the amniotic fluid.
– Specimens for cytogenetic studies are maintained at
25 - 37 0C incubation prior to analysis to prolong the
life of the cells needed for analysis.
– Do not freeze, refrigerate, or centrifuge.
16. Amniotic Fluid specimen
– Specimens for fetal lung maturity tests should be
placed in ice for delivery to the laboratory and
refrigerated prior to testing.
– The specimen will be centrifuged or filtered before
analysis.
– Specimens for bilirubin analysis in cases of Hemolytic
Disease of the Newborn, must be protected from light.
– The sample should be collected in an amber-colored
tube.
– The appearance of the amniotic fluid can indicate
presence of certain chemicals. For example, degree
of redness indicates presence of hemoglobin.
17. Color and Appearance
• Normal amniotic fluid is colorless and may exhibit slight to
moderate turbidity particularly in later stages of fetal
development.
• The presence of bilirubin gives the fluid a yellow color and
is indicative of red blood cell destruction resulting from
HDN.
• Meconium, which is usually defined as a newborn’s first
bowel movement, may be present in the amniotic fluid as
the result of fetal intestinal secretions. It produces a dark
green color.
• Fetal aspiration of meconium during fetal swallowing is a
concern when increased amounts are present in the fluid. A
very dark red-brown fluid is associated with fetal death
19. Gross examination of amniotic fluids color
COLOR SIGNIFICANCE
Colorless Normal
Blood-streaked Traumatic tap, abdominal
trauma, intra-amniotic
hemorrhage
Yellow Hemolytic Disease of the
Newborn (HDN), Bilirubin
Dark green Meconium (first bowel
movement)
Dark red-brown Fetal Death
20. Amniotic Fluid testing
• Laboratory testing of amniotic fluid involves analysis of
bilirubin, alpha-fetoprotein and a variety of tests for fetal lung
maturity (FLM).
• During the third trimester of pregnancy but less than 35 to 36
weeks gestation, fluid collected from the amniocentesis
procedure is analyzed to evaluate fetal lung maturity.
• Limitations:
– Contamination of the amniotic fluid specimen by
blood or meconium invalidates the FLM results.
21. Chemical Composition
• The placenta is the ultimate source of amniotic fluid
water
• and solutes. Amniotic fluid has a composition similar to
that of the maternal plasma and contains a small
amount of sloughed fetal cells from the skin, digestive
system, and urinary tract. These cells provide the basis
for cytogenetic analysis.
• The fluid also contains biochemical substances that are
produced by the fetus, such as bilirubin, lipids,
enzymes, electrolytes, nitrogenous compounds, and
proteins that can be tested to determine the health or
maturity of the fetus.
22. Amniotic Fluid testing
• Bilirubin Scan in Amniotic Fluid
• Hemolysis and bilirubin assessed by optical density of
amniotic fluid at 450 nm spectrophotometricaly
• Change in Absorbance due to bilirubin
• Clinical significance
– evaluate fetal hemolysis in hemolytic disease of
newborn
23. Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
• amniotic fluid evaluates the severity of the fetal anemia
produced by HDN.
• antibodies against other red cell antigens are also capable
of producing HDN, and immunization of Rh-negative
mothers may not be effective or even performed in all
cases.
• Initial exposure to foreign red cell antigens occurs during
gestation and delivery of the placenta when fetal red blood
cells enter into the maternal circulation and stimulate the
mother to produce antibodies to the antigen.
• When these antibodies present in the maternal circulation
cross the placenta into the fetal circulation and bind to the
antigen on the fetal cells, the cells are destroyed.
24. Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
• The destruction of fetal red blood cells results in the
appearance of the red blood cell degradation
product, unconjugated bilirubin, in the amniotic
fluid. By measuring the amount of bilirubin in the
fluid, the extent of hemolysis taking place may be
determined, and the danger this anemia presents to
the fetus may be assessed
26. Summary for Amniotic Fluid
• Mother and unborn child testing
– Health care provider makes decisions about care
and treatment
– Assess chemical changes in mother and fetus
– Understanding the stage of the fetus
– An understanding of the developing physiology of
the fetus is used to predict outcome by assessing
chemical changes in the mother and fetus
27. Exercises
1.What may cause yellow color in amniotic fluids
2. Mention the limitation of chemical tests in amniotic fluid for
specimen transport
3. Describe the principle of bilirubin test in amniotic fluid
4. Describe the clinical significance of amniotic fluid tests
5. describe the function of amniotic
6. What is the primary cause of the normal increase in
amniotic fluid as a pregnancy progresses?
7. What is the reason for decreased amounts of amniotic fluid?
28. References:
• Urinalysis and body fluids / Susan King Strasinger, 5th ed. 2008
• District laboratory practice in tropical countries. 2nd ed. Part I. Monica
Cheesbrough, 2005
• Text book of urinalysis and body fluids. Doris LR, Ann EN, 1983
• Urinalysis and body fluids: A color text and atlas. Karen MR, Jean JL. 1995
• Clinical chemistry: Principles, procedures, correlation. 3rd ed. Michael L. Bishop
et al. 1996
• Tietz Text book of clinical chemistry. 3rd ed. Carl AB, Edward RA, 1999
• Clinical chemistry: Theory, analysis, correlation 4th ed. Lawrence AK. 2003
• ASCP Document
• Urinalysis lecture note . Mistire W. , Dawite Y.
28