Intrauterine Fetal Death (IUFD),(Kurdistan)Znar Mzuri
This document provides an overview of intrauterine fetal death (IUFD), also known as stillbirth. It defines IUFD as the death of a baby in the uterus after 20 weeks of gestation. The document discusses the epidemiology, etiology, risk factors, clinical features, diagnosis, treatment and management, and nursing care of IUFD. It also provides references for additional information.
Fetal distress, also known as nonreassuring fetal status, refers to hypoxia that could result in permanent brain damage or death if not addressed promptly. It is assessed indirectly through methods like monitoring the fetal heart rate and movement during labor. Abnormal heart rate patterns include tachycardia, bradycardia, or loss of beat-to-beat variation in the baseline. Late decelerations with contractions indicate uteroplacental insufficiency. Scalp pH testing provides a direct measure of fetal acidosis. Immediate delivery may be needed if the cause cannot be corrected to restore proper oxygenation to the fetus.
This document discusses fetal distress, also known as nonreassuring fetal status. It can be defined as hypoxia that may result in permanent brain damage or death for the fetus if the cause is not addressed immediately. Some potential causes of fetal distress include maternal hypoxia, placental issues, obstetric complications, and prolonged compression of the fetal head. Effects on the fetus can include growth issues, decreased movement, low amniotic fluid, stillbirth, and effects on the infant like brain injury and meconium aspiration. Assessment methods discussed include monitoring fetal movement, ultrasounds, amniocentesis, biophysical profile testing, and electronic fetal monitoring during labor.
1) Stillbirth refers to the death of a fetus after 22 weeks of gestation or weighing at least 500g, as defined by the WHO. It can occur during delivery (intrapartum) or before delivery (antepartum).
2) Common causes of stillbirth include complications of pregnancy/delivery, fetal growth issues, congenital anomalies, maternal infections, diabetes, hypertension, and unexplained/idiopathic cases.
3) Diagnosis involves assessing the mother's medical history, performing a physical exam to check for fetal movement/heart rate, and conducting imaging like ultrasound to check for fetal abnormalities. Additional tests may include blood tests, amniocentesis, and autopsy.
Oligohydramnios by dr alka mukherjee dr apurva mukherjee nagpur m.s.alka mukherjee
• Oligohydramnios refers to amniotic fluid volume that is less than expected for gestational age. It is typically diagnosed by ultrasound examination and may be described qualitatively (eg, reduced amniotic fluid volume) or quantitatively (eg, amniotic fluid index ≤5 cm, single deepest pocket <2 cm).
• Oligohydramnios may be idiopathic or have a maternal, fetal, or placental cause The fetal prognosis depends on several factors, including the underlying cause, the severity (reduced versus no amniotic fluid), and the gestational age at which oligohydramnios occurs. Because an adequate volume of amniotic fluid is critical to normal fetal movement and lung development and for cushioning the fetus and umbilical cord from uterine compression, pregnancies complicated by oligohydramnios from any cause are at risk for fetal deformation, pulmonary hypoplasia, and umbilical cord compression.
• Oligohydramnios is associated with an increased risk for fetal or neonatal death, which may be related to the underlying cause of the reduced amniotic fluid volume or due to sequelae of the reduced amniotic fluid volume.
• This topic will discuss issues related to oligohydramnios. Methods of amniotic fluid volume assessment are reviewed separately.
• Oligohydramnios occurs when the amniotic fluid is < 5th centile for gestational age.
• The most common causes are premature rupture of membranes (often missed by the mother) and placental insufficiency, however structural abnormalities such as renal agenesis should be considered.
• Prognosis is linked to gestation at diagnosis and likely development of pulmonary hypoplasia and premature delivery.
• Treatment is by optimising gestation of delivery
The document discusses various methods for assessing the fetus during pregnancy, including biochemical, biophysical, and cytogenic tests. Biochemical tests examine maternal serum and include alpha-fetoprotein screening and the triple test. Biophysical tests evaluate fetal well-being through non-stress tests, contraction stress tests, fetal movement monitoring, and Doppler ultrasonography. Cytogenic tests like amniocentesis, cordocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, and fluorescence in situ hybridization are used to detect genetic abnormalities. The goals of antenatal fetal assessment are to ensure fetal growth and well-being, screen for high-risk factors, and prevent fetal injury and death.
This document discusses intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), defined as birth weight below the 10th percentile for gestational age. IUGR can be symmetrical, affecting all organs early in fetal development, or asymmetrical, affecting growth later. Causes include maternal factors like nutrition, disease, and toxins; fetal issues like anomalies and infections; placental problems; and unknown causes. Diagnosis involves monitoring fetal growth by fundal height, ultrasound, and Doppler. Complications for the growth-restricted infant include asphyxia, hypoglycemia, and long term developmental delays. Management focuses on monitoring during pregnancy, careful delivery, and addressing medical issues in the newborn period like temperature, glucose, feeding, and infection risk
This document defines and describes intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), including types (symmetrical vs asymmetrical), causes (maternal, fetal, placental, unknown), assessment methods during pregnancy, physical features at birth, potential complications (both during pregnancy and after birth), and prognosis. IUGR refers to babies with birth weights below the 10th percentile for gestational age and can be caused by factors that restrict the fetus' growth intrinsically or through reduced nutrient/oxygen transfer from mother via placenta.
Intrauterine Fetal Death (IUFD),(Kurdistan)Znar Mzuri
This document provides an overview of intrauterine fetal death (IUFD), also known as stillbirth. It defines IUFD as the death of a baby in the uterus after 20 weeks of gestation. The document discusses the epidemiology, etiology, risk factors, clinical features, diagnosis, treatment and management, and nursing care of IUFD. It also provides references for additional information.
Fetal distress, also known as nonreassuring fetal status, refers to hypoxia that could result in permanent brain damage or death if not addressed promptly. It is assessed indirectly through methods like monitoring the fetal heart rate and movement during labor. Abnormal heart rate patterns include tachycardia, bradycardia, or loss of beat-to-beat variation in the baseline. Late decelerations with contractions indicate uteroplacental insufficiency. Scalp pH testing provides a direct measure of fetal acidosis. Immediate delivery may be needed if the cause cannot be corrected to restore proper oxygenation to the fetus.
This document discusses fetal distress, also known as nonreassuring fetal status. It can be defined as hypoxia that may result in permanent brain damage or death for the fetus if the cause is not addressed immediately. Some potential causes of fetal distress include maternal hypoxia, placental issues, obstetric complications, and prolonged compression of the fetal head. Effects on the fetus can include growth issues, decreased movement, low amniotic fluid, stillbirth, and effects on the infant like brain injury and meconium aspiration. Assessment methods discussed include monitoring fetal movement, ultrasounds, amniocentesis, biophysical profile testing, and electronic fetal monitoring during labor.
1) Stillbirth refers to the death of a fetus after 22 weeks of gestation or weighing at least 500g, as defined by the WHO. It can occur during delivery (intrapartum) or before delivery (antepartum).
2) Common causes of stillbirth include complications of pregnancy/delivery, fetal growth issues, congenital anomalies, maternal infections, diabetes, hypertension, and unexplained/idiopathic cases.
3) Diagnosis involves assessing the mother's medical history, performing a physical exam to check for fetal movement/heart rate, and conducting imaging like ultrasound to check for fetal abnormalities. Additional tests may include blood tests, amniocentesis, and autopsy.
Oligohydramnios by dr alka mukherjee dr apurva mukherjee nagpur m.s.alka mukherjee
• Oligohydramnios refers to amniotic fluid volume that is less than expected for gestational age. It is typically diagnosed by ultrasound examination and may be described qualitatively (eg, reduced amniotic fluid volume) or quantitatively (eg, amniotic fluid index ≤5 cm, single deepest pocket <2 cm).
• Oligohydramnios may be idiopathic or have a maternal, fetal, or placental cause The fetal prognosis depends on several factors, including the underlying cause, the severity (reduced versus no amniotic fluid), and the gestational age at which oligohydramnios occurs. Because an adequate volume of amniotic fluid is critical to normal fetal movement and lung development and for cushioning the fetus and umbilical cord from uterine compression, pregnancies complicated by oligohydramnios from any cause are at risk for fetal deformation, pulmonary hypoplasia, and umbilical cord compression.
• Oligohydramnios is associated with an increased risk for fetal or neonatal death, which may be related to the underlying cause of the reduced amniotic fluid volume or due to sequelae of the reduced amniotic fluid volume.
• This topic will discuss issues related to oligohydramnios. Methods of amniotic fluid volume assessment are reviewed separately.
• Oligohydramnios occurs when the amniotic fluid is < 5th centile for gestational age.
• The most common causes are premature rupture of membranes (often missed by the mother) and placental insufficiency, however structural abnormalities such as renal agenesis should be considered.
• Prognosis is linked to gestation at diagnosis and likely development of pulmonary hypoplasia and premature delivery.
• Treatment is by optimising gestation of delivery
The document discusses various methods for assessing the fetus during pregnancy, including biochemical, biophysical, and cytogenic tests. Biochemical tests examine maternal serum and include alpha-fetoprotein screening and the triple test. Biophysical tests evaluate fetal well-being through non-stress tests, contraction stress tests, fetal movement monitoring, and Doppler ultrasonography. Cytogenic tests like amniocentesis, cordocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, and fluorescence in situ hybridization are used to detect genetic abnormalities. The goals of antenatal fetal assessment are to ensure fetal growth and well-being, screen for high-risk factors, and prevent fetal injury and death.
This document discusses intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), defined as birth weight below the 10th percentile for gestational age. IUGR can be symmetrical, affecting all organs early in fetal development, or asymmetrical, affecting growth later. Causes include maternal factors like nutrition, disease, and toxins; fetal issues like anomalies and infections; placental problems; and unknown causes. Diagnosis involves monitoring fetal growth by fundal height, ultrasound, and Doppler. Complications for the growth-restricted infant include asphyxia, hypoglycemia, and long term developmental delays. Management focuses on monitoring during pregnancy, careful delivery, and addressing medical issues in the newborn period like temperature, glucose, feeding, and infection risk
This document defines and describes intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), including types (symmetrical vs asymmetrical), causes (maternal, fetal, placental, unknown), assessment methods during pregnancy, physical features at birth, potential complications (both during pregnancy and after birth), and prognosis. IUGR refers to babies with birth weights below the 10th percentile for gestational age and can be caused by factors that restrict the fetus' growth intrinsically or through reduced nutrient/oxygen transfer from mother via placenta.
An ectopic pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg implants and grows outside of the uterus, usually in a fallopian tube. Risk factors include prior pelvic inflammatory disease, tubal surgery or ectopic pregnancy, smoking, and intrauterine device use. Patients often present with abdominal pain and vaginal bleeding. Diagnosis involves transvaginal ultrasound and quantitative beta-hCG levels. Treatment options include expectant management for early, stable ectopic pregnancies; methotrexate injection for select cases; or surgery such as salpingectomy for ruptured or unstable ectopic pregnancies. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are important to prevent life-threatening complications.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF ABORTION PDF. NET PRESENTATIONbijaych371
Genetic factors cause about 50% of early miscarriages, with chromosomal abnormalities in the embryo or fetus being the most common cause. Other frequent causes of miscarriage include endocrine/metabolic issues like luteal phase defects (10-15%), anatomical abnormalities of the uterus (3-38%), immunological disorders like antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (5-10%), infections (5%), and unexplained causes (5-10%). The mechanisms of miscarriage vary depending on gestational age, but often involve death of the embryo/fetus followed by its expulsion from the uterus.
This document discusses prolonged pregnancy and post-term pregnancy. It defines these terms as a pregnancy exceeding 42 weeks of gestation. It notes that prolonged pregnancy occurs in 2-12% of pregnancies and is often due to inaccurate dating. Babies born post-term are at higher risk for problems like respiratory distress, hypoglycemia, and intrauterine death. Management may involve monitoring the pregnancy or inducing labor between 41-42 weeks depending on the specific situation. Post-term babies may require support to prevent complications like hypoglycemia, hypothermia, or meconium aspiration.
Ambo University's College of Health Sciences document outlines several obstetric emergencies including hyperemesis gravidarum, premature rupture of membranes, abortion, ectopic pregnancy, preeclampsia, and eclampsia. It describes the definition, risk factors, clinical features, diagnosis, complications and management of each condition. The document provides medical students and health professionals with an overview of major issues that can arise before, during, and after delivery that require emergency treatment.
Ambo University's College of Health Sciences document outlines several obstetric emergencies including hyperemesis gravidarum, premature rupture of membranes, abortion, ectopic pregnancy, preeclampsia, and eclampsia. It describes the definition, risk factors, clinical features, diagnosis, complications and management of each condition. The document provides medical students and health professionals with an overview of major issues that can arise before, during, and after delivery that require emergency treatment.
This document provides an outline and overview of common obstetric emergencies. It discusses conditions that can occur before, during, and after delivery including hyperemesis gravidarum, premature rupture of membranes, abortion, ectopic pregnancy, preeclampsia, abruptio placenta, obstructed labor, uterine rupture, cord prolapse, retained placenta, placenta accreta, and cervical injuries. For each condition, it describes key details like definition, risk factors, clinical features, diagnosis, complications, and management considerations. The document is from the College of Health Sciences at Ambo University in Ethiopia and aims to educate medical students and practitioners about managing these potential pregnancy complications.
Fetal distress occurs when a fetus shows signs of inadequate oxygenation during pregnancy or labor. It is characterized by changes in fetal movement, growth, heart rate, and the presence of meconium in the amniotic fluid. Risk factors include anemia, restricted fetal growth, maternal hypertension, low amniotic fluid, and post-term pregnancy. Treatment involves improving oxygen delivery to the mother and fetus, and complications can include increased mortality risk as well as fetal encephalopathy, seizures, cerebral palsy, and neurodevelopmental delay if left untreated. Regular prenatal checkups with fetal heart rate monitoring are important for prevention.
The document discusses obstetric emergencies, which are life-threatening medical conditions that occur during pregnancy, labor, or delivery that endanger the health of the mother and baby. It defines obstetric emergencies and describes various types including complications of pregnancy like ectopic pregnancy and preeclampsia, as well as emergencies during labor like shoulder dystocia. Signs and symptoms, methods of diagnosis, and treatment approaches for different types of obstetric emergencies are also outlined.
Therapeutic advances in neonatal care include delayed cord clamping, therapeutic hypothermia, exogenous surfactant, and non-invasive ventilation. Delayed cord clamping provides benefits for preterm infants such as fewer transfusions and less intraventricular hemorrhage. Therapeutic hypothermia improves outcomes for infants with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, reducing mortality and neurodevelopmental disabilities. Exogenous surfactant reduces the severity of respiratory distress syndrome but the least invasive mode of administration should be used. Non-invasive ventilation strategies such as CPAP aim to support respiration without intubation and its risks.
Prenatal care involves regular examinations and advice during pregnancy to monitor the health of the mother and fetus. It aims to screen for high-risk cases, prevent or treat complications early, provide health education, and discuss delivery plans. Preconception counseling identifies risks and optimizes health before pregnancy. Prenatal visits assess health status, growth, and provide preventative care. Postnatal care ensures the rapid recovery of both mother and baby and provides family planning services and education.
This document provides information about intra-uterine growth retardation (IUGR). It begins with general and specific objectives of the topic. IUGR is defined as fetal growth restriction, and can be classified as symmetrical or asymmetrical based on onset and organ size. Causes include maternal, fetal, placental and unknown factors. Diagnosis involves ultrasound to measure head circumference, abdominal circumference, femur length and amniotic fluid. Complications for the fetus include hypoxia, acidosis, hypoglycemia and multi-organ failure. Long term risks include delayed development and metabolic syndrome in adulthood.
Placental abruption and placenta previa are two common causes of bleeding in late pregnancy. Placental abruption occurs when the placenta separates from the inner wall of the uterus before delivery. It can cause pain and vaginal bleeding. Placenta previa is when the placenta lies low in the uterus, covering all or part of the cervical opening. It typically causes painless vaginal bleeding. Both conditions can lead to complications for the mother like hemorrhage, shock, and infection or complications for the baby like low birth weight or stillbirth. Treatment depends on gestational age and severity of bleeding but may involve bed rest, monitoring, blood transfusions, or delivery via c-section
This document discusses abortion and miscarriage. It defines abortion as the expulsion of an embryo or fetus weighing 500 grams or less that is incapable of independent survival. Causes of abortion include genetic abnormalities, endocrine issues, infections, anatomical abnormalities, and blood group incompatibility. Threatened abortion refers to bleeding in early pregnancy when recovery is still possible, while inevitable and incomplete abortions involve progression where continuation of pregnancy is impossible. Septic abortion occurs when infection is present. Management depends on severity and aims to evacuate the uterus, treat infection if present, and prevent complications.
This document discusses hemorrhage in early pregnancy, miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy, and hydatidiform mole. It provides definitions, risk factors, clinical features, management, and pathogenesis for each condition. Key points include:
- Miscarriage (spontaneous abortion) occurs in 10-20% of pregnancies and is often due to fetal chromosomal abnormalities or maternal factors like age. Management depends on severity from expectant to surgical evacuation.
- Recurrent miscarriage is defined as 2 or more losses and can be caused by genetic, endocrine, immune, or inherited factors.
- Ectopic pregnancies implant outside the uterus, most commonly in the fallopian tubes. Risk factors
1) Ectopic pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg implants outside the uterus, most commonly in the fallopian tubes, and can cause life-threatening bleeding if left untreated.
2) Risk factors include previous pelvic infections, surgery, or injuries that damage the fallopian tubes.
3) Diagnosis involves testing for the pregnancy hormone hCG and ultrasound imaging to locate any pregnancy inside or outside the uterus.
This document provides an overview of antepartum hemorrhage (APH), specifically focusing on placenta previa, abruption placentae, and vasa previa. It defines each condition, discusses causes, risk factors, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management. Placenta previa is defined as implantation of the placenta in the lower uterine segment and is a leading cause of APH. Abruptio placentae is premature separation of a normally implanted placenta. Vasa previa occurs when fetal blood vessels cross the cervical opening. All three conditions can result in life-threatening bleeding and require careful monitoring and management to optimize maternal and fetal outcomes.
This document discusses different causes of antepartum hemorrhage (bleeding after 24 weeks of pregnancy), including placenta previa, abruptio placenta, and vasa previa. Placenta previa occurs when the placenta is abnormally situated in the lower uterine segment or covers the cervical os, often presenting as painless vaginal bleeding in the third trimester. Abruptio placenta is the premature separation of a normally situated placenta, which can lead to retroplacental bleeding. Vasa previa occurs when blood vessels run across or near the cervical os, putting them at risk of rupture during membrane rupture. Management depends on the severity of bleeding and gestational
This document provides an overview of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). It defines IUGR as fetuses with an estimated fetal weight below the 10th percentile. The prevalence of IUGR is 3-10% of pregnancies and carries high risks of perinatal mortality and morbidity. Causes of IUGR include fetal, placental and maternal factors. Diagnosis involves serial ultrasounds to monitor fetal growth and Doppler studies of blood flow. Management focuses on treating any underlying conditions, fetal monitoring, and timely delivery once the fetus is mature. Strict surveillance of at-risk newborns is also needed due to complications of IUGR.
An ectopic pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg implants and grows outside of the uterus, usually in a fallopian tube. Risk factors include prior pelvic inflammatory disease, tubal surgery or ectopic pregnancy, smoking, and intrauterine device use. Patients often present with abdominal pain and vaginal bleeding. Diagnosis involves transvaginal ultrasound and quantitative beta-hCG levels. Treatment options include expectant management for early, stable ectopic pregnancies; methotrexate injection for select cases; or surgery such as salpingectomy for ruptured or unstable ectopic pregnancies. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are important to prevent life-threatening complications.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF ABORTION PDF. NET PRESENTATIONbijaych371
Genetic factors cause about 50% of early miscarriages, with chromosomal abnormalities in the embryo or fetus being the most common cause. Other frequent causes of miscarriage include endocrine/metabolic issues like luteal phase defects (10-15%), anatomical abnormalities of the uterus (3-38%), immunological disorders like antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (5-10%), infections (5%), and unexplained causes (5-10%). The mechanisms of miscarriage vary depending on gestational age, but often involve death of the embryo/fetus followed by its expulsion from the uterus.
This document discusses prolonged pregnancy and post-term pregnancy. It defines these terms as a pregnancy exceeding 42 weeks of gestation. It notes that prolonged pregnancy occurs in 2-12% of pregnancies and is often due to inaccurate dating. Babies born post-term are at higher risk for problems like respiratory distress, hypoglycemia, and intrauterine death. Management may involve monitoring the pregnancy or inducing labor between 41-42 weeks depending on the specific situation. Post-term babies may require support to prevent complications like hypoglycemia, hypothermia, or meconium aspiration.
Ambo University's College of Health Sciences document outlines several obstetric emergencies including hyperemesis gravidarum, premature rupture of membranes, abortion, ectopic pregnancy, preeclampsia, and eclampsia. It describes the definition, risk factors, clinical features, diagnosis, complications and management of each condition. The document provides medical students and health professionals with an overview of major issues that can arise before, during, and after delivery that require emergency treatment.
Ambo University's College of Health Sciences document outlines several obstetric emergencies including hyperemesis gravidarum, premature rupture of membranes, abortion, ectopic pregnancy, preeclampsia, and eclampsia. It describes the definition, risk factors, clinical features, diagnosis, complications and management of each condition. The document provides medical students and health professionals with an overview of major issues that can arise before, during, and after delivery that require emergency treatment.
This document provides an outline and overview of common obstetric emergencies. It discusses conditions that can occur before, during, and after delivery including hyperemesis gravidarum, premature rupture of membranes, abortion, ectopic pregnancy, preeclampsia, abruptio placenta, obstructed labor, uterine rupture, cord prolapse, retained placenta, placenta accreta, and cervical injuries. For each condition, it describes key details like definition, risk factors, clinical features, diagnosis, complications, and management considerations. The document is from the College of Health Sciences at Ambo University in Ethiopia and aims to educate medical students and practitioners about managing these potential pregnancy complications.
Fetal distress occurs when a fetus shows signs of inadequate oxygenation during pregnancy or labor. It is characterized by changes in fetal movement, growth, heart rate, and the presence of meconium in the amniotic fluid. Risk factors include anemia, restricted fetal growth, maternal hypertension, low amniotic fluid, and post-term pregnancy. Treatment involves improving oxygen delivery to the mother and fetus, and complications can include increased mortality risk as well as fetal encephalopathy, seizures, cerebral palsy, and neurodevelopmental delay if left untreated. Regular prenatal checkups with fetal heart rate monitoring are important for prevention.
The document discusses obstetric emergencies, which are life-threatening medical conditions that occur during pregnancy, labor, or delivery that endanger the health of the mother and baby. It defines obstetric emergencies and describes various types including complications of pregnancy like ectopic pregnancy and preeclampsia, as well as emergencies during labor like shoulder dystocia. Signs and symptoms, methods of diagnosis, and treatment approaches for different types of obstetric emergencies are also outlined.
Therapeutic advances in neonatal care include delayed cord clamping, therapeutic hypothermia, exogenous surfactant, and non-invasive ventilation. Delayed cord clamping provides benefits for preterm infants such as fewer transfusions and less intraventricular hemorrhage. Therapeutic hypothermia improves outcomes for infants with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, reducing mortality and neurodevelopmental disabilities. Exogenous surfactant reduces the severity of respiratory distress syndrome but the least invasive mode of administration should be used. Non-invasive ventilation strategies such as CPAP aim to support respiration without intubation and its risks.
Prenatal care involves regular examinations and advice during pregnancy to monitor the health of the mother and fetus. It aims to screen for high-risk cases, prevent or treat complications early, provide health education, and discuss delivery plans. Preconception counseling identifies risks and optimizes health before pregnancy. Prenatal visits assess health status, growth, and provide preventative care. Postnatal care ensures the rapid recovery of both mother and baby and provides family planning services and education.
This document provides information about intra-uterine growth retardation (IUGR). It begins with general and specific objectives of the topic. IUGR is defined as fetal growth restriction, and can be classified as symmetrical or asymmetrical based on onset and organ size. Causes include maternal, fetal, placental and unknown factors. Diagnosis involves ultrasound to measure head circumference, abdominal circumference, femur length and amniotic fluid. Complications for the fetus include hypoxia, acidosis, hypoglycemia and multi-organ failure. Long term risks include delayed development and metabolic syndrome in adulthood.
Placental abruption and placenta previa are two common causes of bleeding in late pregnancy. Placental abruption occurs when the placenta separates from the inner wall of the uterus before delivery. It can cause pain and vaginal bleeding. Placenta previa is when the placenta lies low in the uterus, covering all or part of the cervical opening. It typically causes painless vaginal bleeding. Both conditions can lead to complications for the mother like hemorrhage, shock, and infection or complications for the baby like low birth weight or stillbirth. Treatment depends on gestational age and severity of bleeding but may involve bed rest, monitoring, blood transfusions, or delivery via c-section
This document discusses abortion and miscarriage. It defines abortion as the expulsion of an embryo or fetus weighing 500 grams or less that is incapable of independent survival. Causes of abortion include genetic abnormalities, endocrine issues, infections, anatomical abnormalities, and blood group incompatibility. Threatened abortion refers to bleeding in early pregnancy when recovery is still possible, while inevitable and incomplete abortions involve progression where continuation of pregnancy is impossible. Septic abortion occurs when infection is present. Management depends on severity and aims to evacuate the uterus, treat infection if present, and prevent complications.
This document discusses hemorrhage in early pregnancy, miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy, and hydatidiform mole. It provides definitions, risk factors, clinical features, management, and pathogenesis for each condition. Key points include:
- Miscarriage (spontaneous abortion) occurs in 10-20% of pregnancies and is often due to fetal chromosomal abnormalities or maternal factors like age. Management depends on severity from expectant to surgical evacuation.
- Recurrent miscarriage is defined as 2 or more losses and can be caused by genetic, endocrine, immune, or inherited factors.
- Ectopic pregnancies implant outside the uterus, most commonly in the fallopian tubes. Risk factors
1) Ectopic pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg implants outside the uterus, most commonly in the fallopian tubes, and can cause life-threatening bleeding if left untreated.
2) Risk factors include previous pelvic infections, surgery, or injuries that damage the fallopian tubes.
3) Diagnosis involves testing for the pregnancy hormone hCG and ultrasound imaging to locate any pregnancy inside or outside the uterus.
This document provides an overview of antepartum hemorrhage (APH), specifically focusing on placenta previa, abruption placentae, and vasa previa. It defines each condition, discusses causes, risk factors, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management. Placenta previa is defined as implantation of the placenta in the lower uterine segment and is a leading cause of APH. Abruptio placentae is premature separation of a normally implanted placenta. Vasa previa occurs when fetal blood vessels cross the cervical opening. All three conditions can result in life-threatening bleeding and require careful monitoring and management to optimize maternal and fetal outcomes.
This document discusses different causes of antepartum hemorrhage (bleeding after 24 weeks of pregnancy), including placenta previa, abruptio placenta, and vasa previa. Placenta previa occurs when the placenta is abnormally situated in the lower uterine segment or covers the cervical os, often presenting as painless vaginal bleeding in the third trimester. Abruptio placenta is the premature separation of a normally situated placenta, which can lead to retroplacental bleeding. Vasa previa occurs when blood vessels run across or near the cervical os, putting them at risk of rupture during membrane rupture. Management depends on the severity of bleeding and gestational
This document provides an overview of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). It defines IUGR as fetuses with an estimated fetal weight below the 10th percentile. The prevalence of IUGR is 3-10% of pregnancies and carries high risks of perinatal mortality and morbidity. Causes of IUGR include fetal, placental and maternal factors. Diagnosis involves serial ultrasounds to monitor fetal growth and Doppler studies of blood flow. Management focuses on treating any underlying conditions, fetal monitoring, and timely delivery once the fetus is mature. Strict surveillance of at-risk newborns is also needed due to complications of IUGR.
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This document discusses urolithiasis, or urinary stones. It defines urolithiasis and describes the most common types of stones based on their chemical composition. Calcium stones are the most prevalent. Risk factors for developing stones include age, sex, family history, diet, and medical conditions like gout. Clinical features can include flank pain, infection, hematuria, or being asymptomatic. Investigations like ultrasound, KUB, CT scan, and IVU may be used. Treatments depend on whether there is infection or pain. Complications can include scarring, infection, fistulae, or obstruction leading to hydronephrosis and chronic kidney disease.
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The skin is the largest organ and its health plays a vital role among the other sense organs. The skin concerns like acne breakout, psoriasis, or anything similar along the lines, finding a qualified and experienced dermatologist becomes paramount.
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Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga-GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS-2024.pdfOsvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
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Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
Gastrointestinal Infections
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS result from the ingestion of pathogens that cause infections at the level of this tract, generally being transmitted by food, water and hands contaminated by microorganisms such as E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter, Staphylococcus, Rotavirus among others that are generally contained in feces, thus configuring a FECAL-ORAL type of transmission.
Among the factors that lead to the occurrence of gastrointestinal infections are the hygienic and sanitary deficiencies that characterize our markets and other places where raw or cooked food is sold, poor environmental sanitation in communities, deficiencies in water treatment (or in the process of its plumbing), risky hygienic-sanitary habits (not washing hands after major and/or minor needs), among others.
These are generally consequences (signs and symptoms) resulting from gastrointestinal infections: diarrhea, vomiting, fever and malaise, among others.
The treatment consists of replacing lost liquids and electrolytes (drinking drinking water and other recommended liquids, including consumption of juicy fruits such as papayas, apples, pears, among others that contain water in their composition).
To prevent this, it is necessary to promote health education, improve the hygienic-sanitary conditions of markets and communities in general as a way of promoting, preserving and prolonging PUBLIC HEALTH.
Gastritis and Gastric Health
Gastric Health is one of the most relevant concerns in human health, with gastrointestinal infections being among the main illnesses that affect humans.
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2. Objectives
a) Definition of fetal distress
b) Identify risk factors/causes of fetal distress
c) Describe pathogenesis of fetal distress
d) Describe clinical features and complications of fetal distress
e) Describe the differential diagnoses of fetal distress
f) Treat the patient according to guidelines of fetal distress
g) Describe preventive measures for fetal distress
2
3. Introduction
• Fetal distress refers to the presence of signs in a pregnant woman
before or during childbirth that suggest that the fetus may not be
well.
• The term “fetal distress,” is believed to be too imprecise.
• They recommend instead “non-reassuring fetal status’’.
3
4. Introduction…
• Non-reassuring fetal status is characterized by tachycardia or
bradycardia, reduced FHR variability, decelerations and absence of
accelerations (spontaneous or elicited).
• It must be emphasized that hypoxia and acidosis is the ultimate result
of the many causes of intrauterine fetal compromise
4
5. Introduction…
• FHR patterns in labor are dynamic and can change rapidly from
normal to abnormal and vice versa.
• Because of this uncertainty about the diagnosis of fetal distress
terminologies used are “Reassuring” and “Non-reassuring” patterns
instead of fetal distress
5
6. Definition
• Fetal distress is an ill-defined term, used to express intrauterine fetal
jeopardy, a result of intrauterine fetal hypoxia, Abnormal Fetal Heart
Rate patterns and Acidosis
While
• Non-reassuring fetal status is characterized by tachycardia or
bradycardia, reduced FHR variability, decelerations and absence of
accelerations (spontaneous or elicited).
6
7. Epidemiology
• The overall risk of prompt caesarean delivery needed for fetal concern
was shown to be 3.1% in an unselected population.
• The risk exceeded 20% in patients with severe pre-eclampsia, post-
term or fetal growth-restricted fetuses with abnormal Doppler studies
and also in women with moderate/severe asthma or severe
hypothyroidism.
• The vast majority of cases of cerebral palsy in otherwise normal-term
infants are not associated with intrapartum hypoxia-ischaemia.
7
9. Classification/Types cont.…
• A. ACUTE:
i. During pregnancy — less common
• Placental separation in placenta previa or abruptio placentae
• Following external cephalic version due to cord entanglement
• During oxytocin induction
• Placental abruption
9
10. Classification/Types…
ii. During labor — common
• Uterine hyper stimulation following oxytocin for augmentation of labor
• Uterine rupture or scar dehiscence
• Cord prolapse
• Injudicious administration of analgesics and anesthetic agents
• Maternal hypotension – as in epidural analgesia
10
11. Classification/Types…
• B. CHRONIC
• The various clinical conditions which are responsible for chronic
placental insufficiency and IUGR, are also linked with chronic fetal
distress
• These conditions are divided into 4 groups
• Maternal
• Fetal
• Placental
• Unknown
11
13. Classification/Types…
• Fetal
• There is enough substrate in the maternal blood and also crosses the
placenta but is not utilized by the fetus due to—to—
• (1) Structural anomalies either cardiovascular, renal or others.
• (2) Chromosomal abnormality.
• (3) Infection TORCH agents (toxoplasmosis, rubella, cytomegalovirus and
herpes simplex) and malaria.
• (4) Multiple pregnancy—There is mechanical hindrance to growth and
excessive fetal demand.
13
14. Classification/Types…
• Placental
• The causes include cases of poor uterine blood flow to the placental site for a
long time. This leads to chronic placental insufficiency with inadequate
substrate transfer.
• The placental pathology includes: Placenta previa, Abruption, Circumvallate,
Infarction and Mosaicism.
• Unknown: The cause remains unknown in about 40 per cent.
14
15. Causes/Risk factors
• Maternal hypoxia
• Anaesthesia
• Heart failure
• Severe anaemia
• During eclamptic fits
• Severe pulmonary disease
15
16. Causes/Risk factors…
• Placental (placental compression)
• Prolonged labor,
• Tonically contracted uterus,
• Placental separation,
• Uteroplacental insufficiency
• Improper / inadequate trophoblastic invasion and placentation in the first trimester,
• Lateral insertion of placenta, reduced maternal blood flow to the placental bed,.
• Foetoplacetal insufficiency
• Vascular anomalies of placenta and cord,.
• Decreased placental functioning mass (Small placenta, abruptio placenta, placenta
previa, post term pregnancy.)
16
17. Causes/Risk factors…
• Obstetrical
• True knot
• Tight coiling around fetal neck
• Rupture of vasa previa
• Hematoma of cord
• Prolonged compression of head of fetus –compression of respiratory center
17
19. Pathophysiology
• Under normal conditions when oxygen supply is adequate, aerobic
glycolysis occurs in the fetus and glycogen is converted into pyruvic
acid which is ultimately oxidized via the Kerb's cycle.
• During hypoxia when Oxygen saturation falls below 40%, anaerobic
glycolysis occurs, resulting in the accumulation of lactic acid and
pyruvic acid leading to metabolic acidosis.
19
20. Pathophysiology Cont.…
• H-ions first stimulate and then depress the sinoatrial node leading to
tachycardia and bradycardia respectively.
• It also causes parasympathetic stimulation leading to hyperperistalsis
and relaxation of the anal sphincter with passage of meconium.
• Decreased fetal oxygenation in labor → hypoxia → metabolic acidosis
→ asphyxia → tissue damage/fetal death
20
21. Diagnosis and Clinical Features
• Clinical suspicion: when decreased fetal movements are felt by the
mother or there is a slowing or stopping of the growth of serial
symphysis fundal height.
• Abnormal sonographic biometric parameters when IUGR or
macrosomia is suspected.
21
22. Diagnosis and Clinical Features…
• Doppler ultrasound is particularly valuable when performed up to 34
weeks of gestation:
• Umbilical artery Doppler may detect changes that reflect increasing placental
vascular resistance.
• Fetal arterial Doppler of, for example, the middle cerebral artery, may detect
reduced resistance which has developed to maintain blood flow to the fetal
brain when placental function is impaired.
• Fetal venous Doppler may detect changes indicative of impaired cardiac
function and fetal acidosis.
22
23. Diagnosis and Clinical Features…
• Cardiotocography (CTG) shows the fetal heart rate response to fetal
movement and to maternal contractions.
• The trace it produces may be described as reassuring, non-reassuring
or abnormal:
23
24. Diagnosis and Clinical Features…
• Antenatal CTG:
• A normal fetal heart rate accelerates with fetal movement and is described as
reactive.
• Stillbirth rates have been shown to be significantly lower after a reactive trace
than after a non-reactive trace
• CTG interpretation is open to inter- and intra-observer variation but can be
interpreted by computerized analysis.
• CTG should not be used as the only form of surveillance of a high-risk
pregnancy
• A contraction stress test, carried out during induced contractions using
oxytocin, has no clinical benefits, and a false positive rate as high as 50%; it
may also have significant adverse effects
24
25. Diagnosis and Clinical Features…
• Intrapartum CTG:
• See the separate Intrapartum Fetal Monitoring article for details.
• CTG should not be used routinely as part of the initial assessment of low-risk
women in early labor
• No decision about a woman's care should be made on the basis of CTG
findings alone.
25
26. Diagnosis and Clinical Features…
• Biophysical profile (BPP) is time-consuming and rarely abnormal in
the presence of normal umbilical arterial Doppler.
• It consists of a combination of CTG, fetal behaviour (including movement,
tone and breathing) and amniotic fluid volume.
• This produces a BPP score to predict the degree of any compromise to the
fetus.
• Available evidence does not support its routine use in high-risk pregnancies
but observational data suggest it has good negative predictive value for fetal
compromise
26
27. Diagnosis and Clinical Features…
• Amniotic fluid volume, both oligohydramnios and polyhydramnios,
has been shown to be associated with poor fetal outcomes.
• However, oligohydramnios is itself associated with intrauterine growth
restriction and urogenital malformations, which were not controlled for in the
studies, demonstrating an association with poor outcomes.
• Polyhydramnios, when clinically apparent, is related to poor neonatal
outcomes but mild, idiopathic polyhydramnios, detected only on ultrasound,
is not associated with adverse outcomes.
27
28. Diagnosis and Clinical Features…
• Fetal scalp blood sampling during labor, to measure lactate (in
preference to pH if available), may be indicated for an abnormal
intrapartum CTG
28
30. Treatment and Management
• Lateral positioning avoids compression of vena cava and aorta by the
gravid uterus. This increases cardiac output and uteroplacental
perfusion.
• Oxygen is administered (6-8 L/min) to the mother with mask to
improve fetal SaO2.
• Correction of dehydration by IV fluids (crystalloids) improves
intravascular volume and uterine perfusion.
• Correction of maternal hypotension (following epidural analgesia)
with immediate infusion of 1L of crystalloid (Ringer’s solution).
30
31. Treatment and Management…
• Stoppage of oxytocin to improve fetal oxygenation. Fetal hypoxia may
be due to strong and sustained uterine contractions. With reassuring
FHR and in absence of fetal acidemia, oxytocin may be restarted.
• Tocolytic (Inj terbutaline 0.25 mg SC) is given when uterus is
hypertonus and there is nonreassuring FHR
31
32. Treatment and Management…
• Amnioinfusion: this is the process to increase the intrauterine fluid
volume with warm normal saline (500mL).
• Indications are:
• (a) Oligohydramnios and cord compression
• (b) To dilute or to wash out meconium
• (c) To improve variable or prolonged decelerations. Advantages: Reduces cord
compression, meconium aspiration, and improves Apgar score. It also reduces
cesarean section rate.
32
33. Treatment and Management…
• If the fetal heart rate pattern remains non-reassuring, further tests
are performed to rule out metabolic acidosis.
• Tests are: (i) To detect FHR accelerations (CTG) (ii) Scalp blood pH, (iii)
Fetal pulse oximetry,
• If acidosis is excluded → labor is monitored with repeat testing (every
30 min) to exclude acidosis.
• If the fetus is acidaemic → urgent delivery by safest method (vaginal
or abdominal) depending on the individual case
33
34. Treatment and Management…
• SURGICAL: Cesarean delivery should be done with a 15° lateral tilt till
the baby is delivered. Thirty minutes has been accepted as the gold
standard for decision to delivery interval in cases of confirmed fetal
compromise.
• Pediatrician should be made available
34
35. Treatment and Management…
• Fetal condition at birth is assessed by blood gas values of the
umbilical artery.
• Normal (mean) values are:
• pH 7.27, PCO2 50;
• HCO–3 23, base excess – 3.6.
• The correlation between the FHR and long term neurological
sequelae is poor.
• In many cases asphyxia occur prior to labor.
35
36. Complications
• Intra Uterine Growth Restriction (IUGR)
• Fetal movement decrease
• Oligohydramnios
• Meconium stained amniotic fluid
• Intra Uterine fetal death (IUFD)
• Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy
• Meconium aspiration syndrome
• Acidosis with decompensation
• Cerebral palsy
• Neonatal seizures
36
37. Key Points
• Fetal distress is an ill-defined term, used to express intrauterine fetal
jeopardy, a result of intrauterine fetal hypoxia, Abnormal Fetal Heart
Rate patterns and Acidosis
• Important investigations are Obstetrics ultrasound, Doppler
Ultrasound, Fetal scalp blood sampling, Amniotic fluid volume
measurement, Biophysical profile (BPP), Fetal scalp blood sampling,
Cardiotocography (CTG)
37
38. Evaluation Questions
1. What is Fetal Distress?
2. What are the causes of Fetal Distress?
3. What are the complications of fetal Distress?
4. What is the management for Fetal Distress?
38
39. Key Reference
i. Gynecology by Ten teachers
ii. Jones, D. (1992), Fundamentals of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1sted,
ELBS
iii. Massawe R, et al, Management of Obstetrics Emergencies and
Obstetrics, 1984
iv. Myles, M. (1999), Textbook for Midwives, 13thed, Churchill Livingstone
v. Obstetrics and Gynecology by Dutta
vi. Obstetrics by Ten teachers
vii. MoHCDGEC/ NACTE (2016). Curriculum for Technician Certificate (NTA
Level 5) Curriculum, Dodoma.
39
40. Self Study Assignment
• What are the difference between Fetal Distress and Asphyxia
neonatorum
• Describe in details the investigations for Fetal Distress
40