The document discusses the origins of American government and the key political concepts and documents that influenced the colonial governments, such as the principle of ordered, limited, and representative government established in documents like the Magna Carta, Petition of Right, and English Bill of Rights. It then summarizes the critical events and compromises that led to the American Revolution and writing of the US Constitution, including the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, various state constitutions establishing principles of government, and the compromises reached at the Constitutional Convention such as the Connecticut Compromise on representation and the Three-Fifths Compromise.

1. ORIGINS OF AMERICAN
GOVERNMENT
Chapter 2

2. OUR POLITICAL
BEGINNINGS
Section 1

3. INTRODUCTION
 What ideas and traditions influenced government in the
English Colonies?
• English customs and ideas about government, including:
• The idea of ordered government
• The principle of limited government
• The principle of representative government
• English historical documents, including:
• The Magna Carta
• The Petition of Right
• The English Bill of Rights

4. CONCEPTS OF GOVERNMENT
The English colonists brought with them political
ideas that had developed over centuries in England.
• Some ideas, such as the rule of law, had roots in early Asian
and African civilizations.
• Other influences came from the ancient Romans, who
occupied England.
• Many key political ideas were written into landmark English
documents.

5. KEY POLITICAL CONCEPTS
Ordered government
• Local governments should be divided into units and ruled by
officers according to law.
Limited government
• Individual citizens have basic rights
• There are limits on government power
Representative government
• Government should serve the will of the people. In other
words, people should have a say in what the government does
or does not do.

6. THE MAGNA CARTA
Signed by King John in 1215
Created by English barons to put
limits on the once absolute power
of the King.
• Guaranteed certain fundamental
rights for the privileged, such as
trial by jury and due process of
law. Over time, these rights were
extended to all English people.

7. THE PETITION OF RIGHT
The Petition of Right was signed by King Charles
I in 1628.
• Banned the king from imprisoning or punishing
people without first following the laws of the
land.
• Kept the king from declaring military rule in times
of peace or making people house soldiers.
• Required the consent of Parliament for taxation.

8. THE ENGLISH BILL OF RIGHTS
The English Bill of Rights was drawn up by
Parliament in 1689 to prevent the abuse of power
by all future monarchs.
• Required the consent of Parliament for taxation
and suspension of laws.
• Promised the right to a fair trial, and to petition the
monarchy to correct injustices.

9. AMERICAN RIGHTS
 This chart compares the rights
guaranteed by the Magna Carta
and the English Bill of Rights
with the freedoms listed in the
Virginia Bill of Rights and the
Bill of Rights in the U.S.
Constitution.

10. THE 13 COLONIES
The colonies were established over a span of 125 years.
• Virginia was the first colony, founded in 1607.
• Georgia was the last, formed in 1733.
The similarities among the colonies ultimately outweighed
their differences.
Each colony was established on the basis of a charter granted
by the king.
• These charters granted some governing authority to the colonies
and kept some for the king.

11. THREE TYPES OF COLONIES
Royal colonies were directly
controlled by the king.
Proprietary colonies were run
by a proprietor chosen by the
king.
Charter colonies were run
mainly by elected legislatures
and were the most independent.

12. ROYAL COLONIES
The governor was appointed by the king.
The upper house of the colonial legislature was also
appointed by the king and served as the colony’s highest
court.
The lower house was elected by colonists who owned
enough property to vote.
The governor had to approve all laws.

13. PROPRIETARY COLONIES
The proprietor appointed the governor.
These colonies were run much like royal colonies.
Of the proprietary colonies, Pennsylvania had an unusually
democratic government with a unicameral legislature.

14. CHARTER COLONIES
Governors in charter colony were elected by property-owning
colonists and lacked veto power.
The elected bicameral legislature could pass laws without the
approval of the king.
Judges were appointed by the legislature.
Virginia and Massachusetts each had their charters revoked,
becoming royal colonies.
Charter colonies enjoyed the most freedoms.

15. THE COMING OF
INDEPENDENCE
Section 2

16. INTRODUCTION
What events and ideas led to American independence?
• Unpopular British colonial policies, such as taxation without
representation.
• Growing political unity among the colonies.
• Colonial protests against British policies.
• British efforts to punish some colonies for showing independence.
• Fighting between colonists and British soldiers.

17. BRITISH COLONIAL
POLICIES
The colonies became used to a large degree of self-rule
for many years.
• Distance made it hard for Parliament to manage colonial affairs or
enforce trade laws.
• Colonial legislatures took on broader powers, withholding pay from
governors who disagreed with legislative proposals.
• Britain provided colonial defense, managed foreign affairs, and provided
a common currency and market.
• Taxation was low and interference with colonial affairs was minimal.

18. BRITISH POLICIES CHANGE
 After King George III came to power in 1760, British policies
changed.
 Parliament expanded and enforced laws to control colonial trade.
Parliament passed new taxes to pay for British troops
stationed in North America.
• Colonists had no say in these policies and protested “taxation
without representation.”
• British leaders ignored these complaints.

19. EARLY EFFORTS AT UNITY
 Early efforts to unite the colonies failed.
• Benjamin Franklin’s proposed Albany Plan of Union in 1754
would have created a colonial congress, but was rejected by
the colonies.
 In 1765, Britain passed the Stamp Act.
• This law required a stamp to be bought for all legal
documents and newspapers.

20. THE STAMP ACT CONGRESS
Nine colonies responded by forming the Stamp
Act Congress in New York.
• They sent a Declaration of Rights and Grievances to
the king. This was the first unified colonial protest.
• Parliament repealed the Stamp Act.

21. TENSIONS GREW
New laws continued to anger
colonists.
• They responded with boycotts
and violence
Colonists created Committees of
Correspondence to organize
resistance.
Events like the Boston Massacre
and Boston Tea Party raised
tensions.

22. FIRST CONTINENTAL
CONGRESS
Met in Philadelphia in 1774 in response to the Intolerable
Acts
Included delegates from every colony but Georgia. Among
them were John Adams, George Washington, and John Jay.
• Sent a Declaration of Rights to King George that protested
Britain’s colonial policies.
• Urged colonists to boycott trade with England until hated laws
were repealed.
• Gained the support of all 13 colonial legislatures and called for
a second Congress to meet the following May.

23. SECOND CONTINENTAL
CONGRESS
Met in Philadelphia in 1775
Every colony sent delegates. John Hancock was chosen
president of the Congress.
The Battles of Lexington and Concord had already been
fought and the Revolutionary War begun.
A continental army was created and George Washington
was made commander-in-chief.

24. SECOND CONTINENTAL
CONGRESS
This Congress became America’s first
national government, from 1776-1781.
• It had legislative and executive
powers.
• During the war, it raised a military,
printed and borrowed money, and
made foreign treaties.
• Benjamin Franklin (left) was a
leading member.

25. BREAKING FROM BRITAIN
Congress resolved to break away from Britain
in 1776.
• Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sherman,
Robert Livingston, and Thomas Jefferson were
named to write a proclamation of independence.
• The delegates declared independence on July 2,
1776 and adopted the Declaration on
July 4.

26. DECLARATION OF
INDEPENDENCE
The Declaration severed ties with Great
Britain and created a unique nation
• No political system had ever been formed on
the principles of equality, human rights, and
representative government that derived its
authority from the will of the people.

27. THE ROAD TO
INDEPENDENCE
English colonists brought with them the ideas of
the Enlightenment and limited government.
• How did early events contribute to the signing of the
Declaration of Independence?

28. THE ROAD TO
INDEPENDENCE
In time, these ideas began to shape the ideal of American
government and the actions of the colonists.
• How did early events contribute to the signing of the
Declaration of Independence?

29. STATE CONSTITUTIONS
The Congress urged colonies to write their own
constitutions.
• A constitution sets out the principles, structures, and
processes of government.
• Most states adopted constitutions in 1776
and 1777.
• The Massachusetts constitution of 1780 is the
oldest of the current state constitutions.

30. IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES
 Popular sovereignty - government must have the consent of the governed
 Limited government - government has only the powers granted by the people
in the constitution
 Civil rights and liberties - seven state constitutions included a bill of rights
defining basic freedoms
 Separation of powers - power divided among legislative, executive, and judicial
branches
 Checks and balances - each branch could limit the power of the other branches
 State constitutions gave most of the power to the legislature, set short terms of
office, and limited the right to vote.

31. THE CRITICAL PERIOD
Section 3

32. INTRODUCTION
What weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation
made a lasting government impossible?
• The Confederation Congress lacked key powers - it could
not raise taxes or regulate trade.
• The Congress could not make states obey the laws it
passed.
• 9 of 13 state delegations had to agree before Congress
could act.
• The Articles could only be changed with the consent of
all 13 state legislatures.

33. ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION
The Second Continental Congress had to create an
official national government.
Congress approved the Articles of Confederation in
1777, but they were not ratified until 1781.
The Articles created a single unit of government, the
Congress.
• Congress was unicameral in structure, with each states electing
its delegates each year.
• Each state delegation had one vote in Congress.

34. FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
The national government had no executive or
judicial branch.
• Special congressional committees exercised
executive and judicial functions.
• Each year Congress would elect a president of
the Congress (but not the nation).

35. CONGRESS
What powers did Congress hold under the
Articles of Confederation?
• Make war and peace
• Make treaties and handle ambassadors
• Borrow money and set up a money system
• Build a navy and raise an army
• Set standards of weights and measures
• Settle disputes between the states

36. STATES UNDER THE
ARTICLES
The states promised to:
• Obey the Articles and acts of Congress
• Provide funds and troops requested by Congress
• Treat citizens of other states fairly
• Respect the laws and court rulings of other states
• Allow open travel and trade among states
• Submit interstate disputes to Congress
• Turn over fugitives from other states
The states kept all powers not given to Congress.

37. WEAKNESSES OF THE
ARTICLES
Only a “firm league of friendship” among States
Only one vote for each State, regardless of size
Congress powerless to levy taxes or duties
Congress powerless to regulate commerce
No executive power to enforce acts of Congress
No national court system
Amendments required the consent of all States
A 9/13 majority required to pass laws.

38. PROBLEMS WITH THE
ARTICLES
After the end of the Revolutionary War, states stopped
cooperating with each other and the national government.
• They refused to supply troops or money.
• Some made their own treaties with other nations.
• Most raised their own military forces.
• They taxed goods from other states and banned trade with some states.
• They printed their own money.

39. PROBLEMS WITH THE
ARTICLES
The economies of many states struggled as a result of all
the bickering and poor planning.
• Much of the newly printed money was worth very little. Prices
soared and loans became hard to get.
• Many people fell into debt.
The economic crisis led to Shays’ Rebellion in
Massachusetts.
• Indebted farmers and other small property owners lost land and
possessions when they could not pay their debts or their state
taxes.

40. SHAY’S REBELLION
In 1768, former revolutionary
officer, Daniel Shays led an armed
uprising of farmers.
State troops finally ended the
rebellion after rebels attacked state
courts and a federal arsenal. Shays
fled to Vermont.

41. STRONGER GOVERNMENT
The call went out for a stronger, more effective
central government.
• In 1785, Maryland and Virginia settled a trade dispute after meeting at
George Washington’s home at Mount Vernon.
• In 1786, Virginia called for all the states to meet to discuss trade issues.
• Five states attended the resulting meeting at Annapolis, Maryland.
• These delegates called for another meeting, this one in Philadelphia in 1787.
Congress eventually gave its support for this meeting.

42. STRONGER GOVERNMENT
Delegates first met at Alexandria.
They met again at Annapolis. The
First and Second Continental
Congresses met at Philadelphia.

43. CONSTITUTIONAL
CONVENTIONS
 The Philadelphia meeting, held in
1787 to revise the Articles of
Confederation, turned into the
Constitutional Convention. Instead
of revising the Articles, it would
replace them with something new.

44. CREATING THE
CONSTITUTION
Section 4

45. INTRODUCTION
What compromises enabled the Framers to create
the Constitution?
• The Connecticut Compromise
• This compromise dealt with how to determine the
representation of states in the national legislature.
• The Three-Fifths Compromise
• This compromise dealt with issues arising from slavery.
• The Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise
• This compromise addressed northern and southern
disagreements about foreign trade.

46. THE FRAMERS
The Constitutional Convention began on
May 25, 1787, with 55 delegates.
• These individuals, called the Framers, came from many
backgrounds:
• Many had fought in the Revolutionary War.
• Eight had signed the Declaration of Independence.
• 34 had attended college at a time when it was a rare
achievement.
• Two would become President, one a Vice President, nineteen
a U.S. Senator, and thirteen a member of the House of
Representatives.

47. A NEW GOVERNMENT
The Framers elected George
Washington as president of the
convention and set up procedural
rules.
• A majority of state delegations
would need to be present to
conduct business.
• Each delegation would have one
vote.
• A majority vote would carry a
proposal.

48. A NEW GOVERNMENT
Then, on May 30th, the
Framers made their biggest
decision: to replace the
Articles of Confederation
rather than amend them.
• James Madison (left) was a
major figure in the
movement to replace the
Constitution.

49. THE VIRGINIA PLAN
This plan called for a government with a legislative,
executive, and judicial branch.
• Congress would have two houses, with representation based on
state population or the money given to the central government.
• Congress would have more power than it had under the Articles.
• It would be able to force states to obey federal law.
• The members of Congress would elect a national executive and
judiciary.
• These two branches would form a council that could veto acts
passed by Congress.

50. THE NEW JERSEY PLAN
This plan proposed a much different organization of the three
branches.
• Congress would have a single house with equal representation for
each state.
• This Congress would have more limited powers than under the Virginia
Plan.
• There would be an executive committee of several people, chosen by
Congress.
• At the request of a majority of state governors, Congress could remove
members of this committee.
• The executive committee would appoint a supreme tribunal to be the
federal judiciary.

51. CONNECTICUT COMPROMISE
Small states feared that larger states would dominate them
under the Virginia Plan.
The Connecticut Compromise, also called the Great
Compromise, solved this dispute.
• In the House of Representatives, each state would be
represented according to its population.
• In the Senate, each state would have equal representation.

52. ADDITIONAL COMPROMISES
Southern states wanted to count slaves as part of
the state population. Northern states did not.
• The Three-Fifths Compromise
counted each slave as three-fifths
of a person when figuring
representation in Congress.

53. ADDITIONAL COMPROMISES
Southern states wanted to protect their
agricultural exports and the slave trade from
regulation by Congress.
• Under the Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise,
Congress could not tax state exports or interfere
with the slave trade until 1808.

54. THE ISSUE OF SLAVERY
Disputes over slavery during the
Convention arose because slavery
was far more common in the
agricultural South than in the more
industrial North.
However, slavery was legal in
every states except Massachusetts.

55. A BUNDLE OF COMPROMISES
The Framers had to resolve disputes involving such issues
as:
• The exact structure of the new government
• Regional differences among the states
• The method of choosing the President
• How to amend the Constitution
• The limits on federal powers
The Constitution they approved on September 17, 1787,
has thus been called a “bundle of compromises.”

56. RATIFYING THE
CONSTITUTION
Section 5

57. INTRODUCTION
What issues aroused the vigorous debate over the
ratification of the Constitution?
• The key issues debated included:
• How strong should the new central government be to avoid
the problems faced under the Articles of Confederation?
• Why didn’t the Constitution have a Bill of Rights, and was
one really necessary?
• Did Congress and the presidency have too much power?

58. A NEW GOVERNMENT
The Articles of Confederation could only be amended by
a unanimous vote of all 13 states.
But the delegates at the Constitutional Convention
decided to require only 9 of 13 states to ratify the
Constitution.
• They felt that a unanimous vote would be too difficult to achieve,
and that the Articles were being replaced rather than amended.
Copies of the new Constitution were sent to the states on
September 18, 1787.

59. FEDERALISTS
Supporters of ratification
were called Federalists.
• They argued that the
Articles of Confederation
were weak and needed to be
replaced.
• Alexander Hamilton was a
leader among the Federalists

60. ANTI-FEDERALISTS
Opponents of ratification were called Anti-
Federalists.
• They opposed the new ratification process.
• They thought the new central government would
be too strong.
• Most of all, they argued that the Constitution
needed a Bill of Rights to protect the people.

61. BILL OF RIGHTS
At first, Federalists said a Bill of Rights was not needed
because:
• The state constitutions already protected individual rights
and freedoms.
• The separation of powers among the three branches
would keep the new national government from abusing its
authority.
But Anti-Federalists opposition was so strong that
Federalists eventually promised to add a Bill of Rights once
the Constitution was ratified.

62. FEDERALIST WRITINGS
The Federalist Papers influenced many Americans
to support the Constitution
• These were written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and
John Jay, all using the pen name, Publius.
• They consisted of 85 political essays, written between 1787 and
1788, and were soon published across the nation.
• These essays are still read widely today for their insights into the
Constitution, the federal government, and the nature of
representative democracy.

63. ANTI-FEDERALIST WRITINGS
Anti-Federalists also wrote many essays, pamphlets,
and letters
• The essays by “Brutus” were most likely written by Robert Yates.
They were first published in New York.
• Richard Henry Lee of Virginia wrote a number of pamphlets
and letters using the name “The Federal Farmer.”
Around the country, debate over ratification was fed
by these various written works expressing strong views
on both sides.

64. RATIFICATION DEBATE
Ratification was swift in
some states and bitterly
contested in others.
Approval of the
Constitution required
ratification by nine states.
On June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth
ratifying state.

65. TROUBLE WITH
RATIFICATION
Even though 9 states had ratified the Constitution,
without the support of the key states of New York and
Virginia, the Constitution would fail.
• In Virginia, James Madison, George Washington, and Thomas
Jefferson supported the Federalists against Anti-Federalists led
by Patrick Henry, James Monroe, and George Mason.
• New York was deadlocked until Alexander Hamilton helped
turn the tide for the Federalists.

66. SUCCESS
When Virginia and New
York ratified the
Constitution by narrow
votes, success was finally
ensured.
Eventually all 13 states
ratified the Constitution.

67. INAUGURATION
The Confederation
Congress chose New York
City as the temporary capital
of the United States.
The new U.S. Congress
first met on March 4, 1789, at
Federal Hall in New York
City.

68. INAUGURATION
George Washington was chosen as
the first President by a unanimous vote
of electors.
He took office on April 30th. John
Adams was vice president.