This document contains summaries of several sections from a chapter on genetics: 1. It discusses different types of gene mutations including substitutions, insertions, deletions, and chromosomal mutations like deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. 2. It notes that most mutations are not harmful and lists mutagens as things that can cause mutations, like chemicals and physical agents. 3. It briefly outlines prokaryotic gene regulation using the example of the lac operon in E. coli, and lists promoters, operators, and transcription factors as aspects of eukaryotic gene regulation.

1. Chapter 13 Notes
Ill.Mutations
1. gene mutations
(#22,000/46) chromosomes are made up of genes also a chromosome is a diploid
substitution,(insertion,and deletion) theses are called frame shift the ones in parenthesise
2. chromosomal mutations
deletion or erase part or all,duplication or copy,inversion or switch,and trans-location or breaks of a
chromosome then moving different spots.
B. effects of mutation
1.mutagens
any thing that causes a mutations or (chemical/physical)
2.harmful and helpful mutations
most are not harmful
lv. gene regulation and expression
A.prokaryotic gene regulation
1. the lac operon= a group of genes that regulate
E.coli is in the intestine it is your friend and your enemy
2. promoters and operators
B. eukaryotic gene regulation
1. transcription factors
2. cell specialization
3. RNA interference
4. the promise of RNAi
Ch 13 RNA and Protein Synthesis
DNA an RNA are both nucleic acids or long chains which is made of nucleotides and thats made out of three
parts, sugar base phosphate
A.The Role of DNA
1. RNA
2.Comparing RNA and DNA
3. Functions of RNA
What is the three differences between RNA and DNA:
-messenger RNA/carries info from nucleus
-ribosomal RNA
-transfer RNA
2.ribosomes
3.mutations
B. RNA synthesis
1.transcription/1.enzyme/binds to DNA promoter or areas of DNA where
transcript begins
step2/DNA unwinds.....step3/rna polymerase makes mRNA using the DNA sense strand
2.promoters
2. ribosomes and protein synthesis
A. the genetic code
1. how to read co-dons or tree letters of the code/AUG
2.start and stop co-dons

2. DNA->RNA->protein proteins are amino acids together

3. B.translation
1. steps in translation
1.mrna attaches to ribosomes/2.erna carrier AA to ribosomes/3 ribosomes attaches into polypeptide chain
2. the roles of tRNA and rRNA in translation

4. C the molecular basis of heredity
central dogma of molecular biology