This chapter introduces the concept of culture and defines it as the learned and shared understandings among a group of people about how to behave and what things mean. Culture is not instinctual but rather taught from one generation to the next. It includes both explicit rules and implicit habits. The chapter discusses five key dimensions of culture: communities, individuals, products, practices, and perspectives. It aims to provide a framework for understanding culture in the context of conducting fieldwork research in Japan.

1.
Fieldwork
Research
Methods
for
Japan:
The
Handbook
Robert
Croker
Nanzan
University
Research
Methods
Press

2. 1

3. 2
Table
of
Contents
Part
I:
Beginnings
–
Lighting
the
Lanterns
Chapter
1:
What
is
‘culture’?
Chapter
2:
How
can
you
study
‘a
culture’?
Part
II:
Planning
The
Practicalities
–
Preparing
for
Your
Research
Journey
Chapter
3:
Creating
your
fieldwork
project
plan
Chapter
4:
Your
participants:
The
people
in
your
project
Chapter
5:
Managing
your
research:
Staying
organized
Part
III:
Gathering
and
Analyzing
Your
Data
–
The
Day
of
the
Festival
Chapter
6:
Observing
Japan:
Looking,
listening,
participating
Chapter
7:
Reading:
Primary
and
secondary
sources
Chapter
8:
Asking:
Informal
and
formal
interviewing
Chapter
9:
Asking:
Questionnaires
Part
IV:
By
the
Light
of
the
Lantern
–
Stories
at
the
Izakaya
Chapter
10:
Presenting
fieldwork
results
effectively
Part
V:
At
the
Back
of
the
Store
–
Extra
Resources
Appendix
A:
Example
fieldwork
topics
Appendix
B:
Sample
reports
Glossary
List
of
references
Index
©
Robert
Croker,
2015
Fieldwork
Research
Methods
for
Japan:
The
Handbook
Research
Methods
Press,
Nagoya,
Japan
Photos:
Robert
Croker,
Guillaume
Catella

4. 3
Part
I
Beginnings:
Lighting
the
Lanterns

5. 4
Chapter
1
What
is
‘culture’?
Introduction
Cultural
anthropologists
argue
that
humans
are
inherently
cultural
beings;
that
is,
that
being
a
member
of
a
cultural
group
is
what
defines
us
as
‘human.’
From
this
perspective,
culture
is
what
provides
people
with
the
fundamentals
of
human
experience:
language
to
communicate
with;
ways
of
thinking
to
help
us
make
sense
of
the
world;
particular
ways
of
doing
things
so
we
can
live
successfully
together
in
groups
and
to
mediate
and
resolve
differences
and
conflicts;
products
that
make
our
day
easier
and
that
we
give
special
meanings
to;
and
communities
of
people
that
help
us
to
live
in
our
environment
and
to
fulfill
our
social
needs.
If
culture
defines
us
as
human,
then
does
culture
completely
determine
our
behavior?
Arguably
not
–
rather,
culture
provides
us
with
a
‘menu’
of
possibilities,
and
this
menu
changes
over
time
as
a
culture
changes.
So,
each
person’s
behavior
and
attitudes
are
a
mixture
of
culturally
sanctioned
behaviors
and
attitudes
on
the
one
hand
and
individual
preferences
and
experiences
on
the
other.
This
book
is
an
introduction
to
fieldwork
in
Japan.
The
purpose
of
fieldwork
is
to
understand
how
people
live
their
lives,
the
meanings
people
make
of
what
happen
to
them,
and
the
influence
that
culture
has
on
these
meanings
and
behaviors.
That
is,
fieldwork
seeks
to
identify
the
‘menu’
of
culturally
sanctioned
possibilities
of
behavior
and
attitudes,
and
also
how
people
adopt
or
adapt
them
in
their
own
lives.
So,
in
this
first
introductory
chapter,
we
explore
what
culture
is,
what
it
is
not,
and
then
consider
five
dimensions
of
culture
that
provide
a
useful
framework
for
understanding
what
it
is:
communities,
individuals,
products,
practices,
and
perspectives
(adapted
from
Moran,
2001).

6. 5
What
is
culture?
Definition:
“Culture
is
the
learned,
shared
understandings
among
a
group
of
people
about
how
to
behave
and
what
everything
means”
(Omohundro,
2008,
p.
27).
Let’s
stop
and
consider
each
term
in
this
definition:
learned:
culture
is
not
instinctual.
People
teach
each
other,
imitate
each
other,
correct
each
other,
and
so
come
to
share
a
culture.
shared:
culture
is
not
just
what
one
person
does,
but
what
a
group
of
people
does.
understandings:
culture
is
in
people’s
minds,
and
includes
both
explicit
knowledge
and
implicit
knowledge.
a
group
of
people:
can
be
a
small
group
(like
a
university
club)
or
a
large
group
(like
a
nation).
how
to
behave:
culture
guides
our
actions,
sometimes
as
rules
and
knowledge
that
you
are
conscious
of,
and
sometimes
as
habits
that
you
have
picked
up
unconsciously
by
imitating
those
around
you.
what
everything
means:
about
what
is
good
or
right
to
do
and
to
be,
as
well
as
what
is
bad
and
wrong
–
which
shapes
how
people
behave.
Moreover,
cultural
anthropology
distinguishes
between
‘culture’
–
something
that
all
humans
have
by
virtue
of
being
members
of
social
groups,
and
‘a
culture’
–
the
particular
shared
understandings
of
a
certain
social
group
(Omohundro,
2008,
p.29).
In
this
fieldwork
class,
we
will
explore
the
meanings
of
‘culture’
and
then
apply
those
ideas
to
explore
one
particular
culture
–
one
social
group
living
in
Japan.
What
cultures
are:
a)
Cultures
are
integrated
–
culture
can
be
seen
as
an
integrated
system,
or
a
set
of
mutually
influential
relationships
among
its
parts.
Each
part
of
culture
is
related
to
another
part.
b)
Cultures
are
products
of
history
–
cultures
are
reproduced
each
generation;
each
generation
decides
what
to
keep
and
what
to
throw
away,
re-­‐interprets
history
in
its
own
ways,
and
faces
particular
challenges
and
often
critical
experiences
unique
to
that
era.
c)
Cultures
change
–
and
change
rapidly.
Change
can
spring
from
developments
in
technology
or
the
environment
(material
change]
or
from
the
development
of
new
ideas
and
perspectives
(ideational
change);
alternatively
it
can
be
driven
by
economic
change
or
social
change.
Change
can
also
be
driven
by
internal
developments
or
external
developments,
and
often
both
operating
together.
d)
Cultures
are
strengthened
by
values
–
values
are
shared
understandings
of
what
is
good
or
right
to
do
and
to
be,
as
well
as
what
is
bad
and
wrong.
Values
compel
people
to
do
‘the
right
thing’,
culturally
speaking.
e)
Cultures
are
powerful
determinants
of
behavior
–
the
presence
of
values
helps
explain
why
people
usually
behave
‘appropriately’,
even
if
they
know
they
don’t
have
to.
Much
of
what
we
have
learned
is
beneath
our
awareness
or
has
become
a
comfortable
habit,
or
is
surrounded
by
values.
However,
all
of
us
break
some
rules
sometimes;
each
person
is
individual
in
some
way.
In
fact,
none
of
us
even
knows
all
of
the
rules.

7. 6
f)
Cultures
are
largely
composed
of
and
transmitted
by
symbols
–
a
symbol
is
anything
to
which
its
users
assign
meaning,
such
as
a
word
or
gesture
(a
linguistic
symbol)
or
a
Christian
cross
(a
material
symbol).
Meaning
is
given
by
the
culture
and
may
be
quite
arbitrary
–
the
word,
gesture
or
object
may
have
no
obvious
relationship
to
its
given
meaning.
Symbols
are
what
give
a
culture
the
ability
to
communicate,
to
transfer
meaning,
and
to
endure
across
generations,
as
children
first
learn
the
symbols
of
the
culture
and
then
through
those
symbols
the
cultural
values
and
behavior.
g)
Cultures
are
constructed
–
groups
construct
or
create
their
understandings
by
selecting
this,
ignoring
that,
and
making
up
another
thing
–
the
shared
understandings
of
a
group
are
not
necessarily
dictated
by
reality.
Although
there
are
plenty
of
reality
checks,
a
culture’s
ideas
sometimes
have
a
life
of
their
own,
and
they
define
reality
for
its
members.
h)
Cultural
practices
are
diverse
–
individuals
participate
in
a
combination
of
subcultures,
regional
cultures,
national
culture(s),
and
even
international
cultures,
so
“We
are
all
multicultural”
(John
Caughey,
2002,
p.
174)
–
each
of
us
has
learned
several
cultures,
which
overlap
and
even
compete
or
contradict
one
another
in
our
lives
(Omohundro,
2008,
p.42).
Source:
adapted
from
Omohundro
(2008,
pp.
36-­‐40,
p.
42)
What
culture
is
not:
We
have
explored
what
culture
is;
it
is
also
important
to
explore
what
culture
is
not,
to
dispel
some
of
the
more
common
misapprehensions
about
culture.
a)
Culture
is
not
the
same
as
society
–
a
society
is
a
group
of
people
who
interact
to
create,
share,
and
perpetuate
a
culture.
b)
Culture
is
not
just
food
customs,
musical
traditions,
and
colorful
costumes
–
they
are
only
small
parts
of
the
whole.
Culture
also
includes
much
that
occurs
during
people’s
ordinary
day
–
and
it
is
this
everyday
lived
reality
that
is
often
what
fieldwork
focuses
upon.
c)
Culture
is
not
behavior
–
although
it
guides
behavior
in
informing
people
what
to
do
and
why
to
do
it.
d)
Culture
is
not
an
explanation
for
everything
that
people
do
–
people
can
act
with,
around,
or
against
culture.
Also,
anthropology
does
not
claim
that
culture
offers
a
complete
explanation
of
human
behaviour,
just
that
“there
is
a
cultural
element
in
most
human
behavior
and
that
certain
things
in
behavior
make
the
most
sense
when
seen
through
culture”
(Kroeber
&
Kluckhohn
1963,
p.
369,
cited
in
Omohundro,
2008,
p.
44).
That
is,
culture
provides
a
valuable
but
still
partial
explanation
of
what
people
do.
e)
Culture
is
not
an
explanation
for
everything
that
people
think
–
two
people
might
share
a
fair
bit
of
culture,
but
could
also
disagree
on
many
things.
Some
ideas
and
practices
are
completely
taken
for
granted,
some
are
popular
but
not
universal,
some
are
often
disputed,
and
a
few
are
highly
controversial.
What
culture
actually
does
is
to
help
define
the
debates
and
provide
a
language
for
their
disagreement.
Source:
adapted
from
Omohundro
(2008,
pp.
43-­‐5).

8. 7
Exploring
a
particular
culture:
Five
dimensions
How
can
you
explore
a
particular
culture?
One
way
is
to
conceive
of
culture
as
being
comprised
of
five
interrelated
elements:
communities,
made
up
of
individual
people,
use
and
construct
cultural
products
while
engaged
in
existing
and
emerging
cultural
practices.
These
new
practices
and
products
develop
from
and
contribute
to
the
development
of
cultural
perspectives
(Moran,
2001).
Let’s
stop
and
consider
each
of
these
elements
in
turn
(based
on
Moran,
2001):
Communities:
communities
are
groups
of
people,
and
these
communities
are
always
changing.
Communities
can
range
in
size
from
small,
private
groups
such
as
families
and
friendship
groups
through
to
larger,
more
official
institutional
groups
such
as
schools,
companies
and
religious
organizations
through
to
geographically
defined
groups
such
as
the
people
who
live
in
a
particular
village,
town,
city
or
prefecture.
Communities
are
not
isolated,
but
co-­‐exist
with
other
communities.
Different
communities
are
in
different
relationships
with
one
another
–
cooperation,
collaboration,
conflict
–
and
these
relationships
are
dynamic
and
change
over
time.
Individual
people:
communities
are
made
up
of
individual
people.
The
people
in
a
particular
community
are
similar
in
some
ways
and
unique
in
others
–
each
person
is
a
distinct
mix
of
individual
experiences
and
characteristics
on
the
one
hand
and
yet
belong
to
a
number
of
different
communities
on
the
other.
Individuals
may
differ
in
terms
of
their
age
and
gender,
socio-­‐economic
status,
levels
of
education,
attitudes,
opinions
and
beliefs,
aspirations,
and
life
experiences.
Culture
resides
both
in
the
individual
members
and
also
in
the
various
social
groups
or
communities
that
people
form.
That
is,
culture
is
both
individual
and
collective
–
it
is
both
psychological
and
social.
Products:
People
use
and
construct
cultural
products,
the
tangible
and
intangible
creations
of
a
particular
culture.
Tangible
products
include
objects
such
as
festival
clothes,
lanterns,
fans
and
banners,
o-­‐mikoshi,
and
musical
instruments;
these
are
often
referred
to
as
artifacts
or
material
culture.
Intangible
products
cannot
be
seen
and
touched
directly;
they
include
such
things
as
festival
music,
dancing,
and
songs.
Both
tangible
and
intangible
products
use
symbols
to
represent
particular
meanings.
A
very
important
set
of
symbols
in
every
culture
is
language.
Practices:
Cultural
practices
refer
to
the
actions
and
interactions
that
members
of
a
culture
carry
out,
individually
or
with
others.
They
represent
knowledge
of
what
to
do,
when
and
where.
Cultural
practices
are
a
mix
of
existing
and
emerging
ways
of
doing
–
some
practices
change
over
time,
but
some
do
not.
Some
practices
are
considered
appropriate,
and
some
are
considered
inappropriate
(such
as
practiced
considered
to
be
taboo).
Knowing
how
to
use
language
appropriately
is
an
important
cultural
practice.
Membership
of
a
particular
community
is
often
marked
by
knowing
how
to
behave
and
use
language
appropriately.
Perspectives:
Perspectives
are
a
culture’s
ways
of
understanding
the
world.
They
include
a
culture’s
perceptions,
values
and
beliefs,
and
attitudes.
They
underpin
a
culture’s
use
of
cultural
products
and
shape
and
give
meaning
to
cultural
practices.
Perspectives
can
be
explicit,
but
they
are
often
implicit,
even
outside
of
conscious
awareness.
Perspectives
provide
meaning
for
people’s
lives,
and
constitute
a
unique
outlook
or
orientation
toward
life
–
a
unique
worldview.
New
practices
and
products
develop
from
and
contribute
to
the
development
of
cultural
perspectives.
Perspectives
are
invisible
–
they
cannot
be
seen
directly
–
but
you
can
explore
them
through
talking
with
the
members
of
a
cultural
group,
and
by
examining
their
products
and
practices.

9. 8
Figure
1:
The
five
dimensions
of
a
culture
(source:
adapted
from
Moran,
2001)
Case
study
–
the
five
dimensions:
One
example
of
a
community,
seen
through
the
lens
of
Moran’s
five
dimensions
of
culture
(2001),
will
help
you
see
that
“culture
is
the
learned,
shared
understandings
among
a
group
of
people
about
how
to
behave
and
what
everything
means”
(Omohundro,
2008,
p.
27).
This
case
study
uses
excerpts
from
a
self-­‐completed
survey
to
explore
one
community
of
an
18-­‐year-­‐old
Japanese
high
school
student
–
her
school
volleyball
team.
At
the
time,
Nami
(not
her
real
name)
was
studying
at
an
international
high
school
in
central
Japan,
and
said
of
herself,
“I
spent
eight
years
living
in
Canada
from
when
I
was
6
to
when
I
was
14.
When
I
came
back
to
Japan
I
entered
this
high
school,
and
I
love
being
here.
It’s
become
my
home;
outside,
I
often
feel
as
though
I’m
a
bit
of
an
outsider
because
I’ve
spent
so
much
time
overseas.
I
often
feel
more
Canadian
than
Japanese.”
Community:
I
belong
to
the
school
volleyball
team,
which
consists
of
both
junior
and
senior
high
school
students,
and
has
about
30
members.
The
team
is
only
for
girls,
and
we
also
have
a
teacher
who
supervises
us.
I
joined
this
team
about
three
years
ago,
because
a
friend
of
mine
invited
me
to
join
with
her.
To
be
a
member
of
the
group
you
should
be
interested
in
playing
volleyball.
Before
I
joined
the
team,
I
first
went
to
watch
them
practicing,
to
see
what
people
were
doing.
Then,
because
it
looked
fun
and
interesting,
I
decided
to
sign
up.
The
age
of
the
team
members
ranges
from
12
to
18.
We
help
each
other
to
create
a
nice
team.
Because
of
the
age
differences,
there
are
also
differences
in
each
person’s
ability.
Some
members
have
been
practicing
volleyball
for
many
years,
but
some
of
the
members
have
only
been
practicing
for
two
months.
As
I’m
in
the
final
year
of
high
school
I’m
in
the
oldest
age
group.
I
really
enjoy
watching
people
improve
their
skills
day
by
day.
The
ones
who
improve
the
most
come
to
the
extra
morning
practice
sessions
and
listen
to
other
people’s
advice
about
how
they
can
improve
their
skills.
CULTURE
PRODUCTS PRACTICES
PEOPLE
PERSPECTIVES
COMMUNITIES
VISIBLE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
INVISIBLE
FIVE DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE

10. 9
People:
In
my
volleyball
team,
the
higher-­‐year
groups
have
more
power
than
the
lower-­‐year
groups.
Since
I’m
in
the
highest
year,
I’m
responsible
for
teaching
newcomers.
I
can
also
ask
people
to
do
something
for
the
team,
such
as
prepare
drinks.
Although
I’m
in
the
highest
year,
there
is
one
person
who
is
more
central
and
important
than
me
–
the
team
captain
who
runs
the
team.
My
volleyball
team
is
relatively
friendly,
and
is
not
as
strict
or
harsh
as
other,
more
powerful
high
school
teams.
Also,
I
feel
that
our
team
members
each
have
their
own
individual
volleyball
style.
Some
of
the
members
played
volleyball
at
their
schools
overseas,
so
sometimes
they
have
their
own
way
of
playing.
Products:
Of
course,
the
key
products
that
we
use
are
the
volleyball
and
the
volleyball
net.
These
are
the
shared
products.
We
also
bring
our
own
individual
products
–
our
volleyball
shoes,
for
example,
and
also
our
volleyball
kit
and
sports
bag.
We
do
not
have
a
team
uniform.
The
key
space
is
the
school
gym
where
the
volleyball
courts
are.
However,
sometimes
we
also
use
the
school
gym
to
do
muscle
and
fitness
training.
We
do
not
have
a
team
symbol,
such
as
a
special
name,
bird
or
animal,
or
letter,
probably
because
we
do
not
have
a
team
uniform
and
we
are
still
a
relatively
new
team.
I
wish
that
we
did
have
one.
Practices:
Our
key
practice
is
to
play
volleyball.
As
a
team,
we
try
to
improve
our
skills
and
to
get
better.
However,
we
don’t
only
play
volleyball
–
we
also
talk
and
chat
before
and
after
club.
We
have
some
important
rituals
that
we
follow
for
each
practice.
We
start
practice
by
bowing
to
the
volleyball
court.
Then,
we
run
around
the
court
three
times.
After
that,
we
stretch
our
bodies
for
a
bit
until
we
feel
ready
to
start
practicing.
First,
we
practice
passing
the
ball
to
each
other,
and
then
we
practice
serving.
After
that,
we
practice
together
in
teams
of
six
to
develop
our
teamwork.
We
usually
practice
in
the
same
teams
of
six
each
time.
We
use
special
language
when
we
are
playing
–
like
serve,
spike,
net,
and
so
on.
We
also
have
court
names
–
names
that
we
use
for
a
person
only
when
she
is
on
the
court.
And
of
course,
the
kohai
have
to
use
honorific
language
when
they
speak
to
their
sempai.
The
biggest
taboo
of
our
club
is
to
miss
practice.
We
have
practice
every
day,
and
everyone
is
expected
to
come
to
practice.
The
next
biggest
taboo
is
for
kohai
to
use
honorific
language
incorrectly
when
they
speak
to
their
sempai,
even
though
we
all
have
lived
overseas
for
much
of
our
lives,
and
usually
speak
in
English
in
class.
I
guess
that
we
have
adopted
a
really
Japanese
way
of
thinking
for
our
team.
Perspectives:
The
main
focus
of
our
team
is
always
to
improve
our
volleyball
skills
and
techniques.
However,
I
guess
the
biggest
issue
is
the
attitude
and
behavior
of
the
kohai.
To
be
honest,
now
that
I
am
in
the
highest
year,
I
often
feel
that
the
younger
members
are
slackening
off
a
bit
too
much.
Sometimes
they
are
too
lazy
to
do
something
for
the
team,
such
as
clean
the
court
at
the
end
of
practice
or
to
serve
drinks
during
the
breaks,
so
we
often
have
to
remind
them.
In
addition,
some
of
the
newcomers
are
not
trying
to
improve
their
skills,
so
we
struggle
to
teach
them.
To
improve
our
team,
we
need
to
practice
harder
and
to
unite
even
tighter
within
the
team.
We
often
try
to
explain
this
to
the
kohai
in
our
reflection
sessions
after
practice
each
day,
but
they
don’t
seem
to
listen
sometimes.
Their
relationships
with
students
in
the
same
year
might
be
more
important
–
but
I
was
the
same
when
I
just
joined
the
team,
so
I
understand
how
they
feel.
For
us,
whether
someone
gets
good
class
grades
or
not
is
not
important.
I
think
the
group’s
values
are
that
we
are
a
team
and
that
we
should
all
try
hard
together
to
make
our
volleyball
team
better,
supporting
our
teammates
and
helping
each
other.
We
should
do
that
in
our
behavior
(what
we
do),
our
language
(what
we
say),
and
our
attitude
(how
we
feel).
To
sum
up:
always
think
of
your
teammates
first,
and
then
yourself
second.
I
prefer
team
members
who
might
not
be
so
good
at
volleyball
but
who
have
a
really
positive
attitude
to
team
members
who
are
good
at
volleyball
but
who
don’t
really
support
others.
We
are
not
playing
volleyball
to
beat
each
other
(or
even
other
teams)
but
for
each
person
to
get
better
and
to
support
her
teammates
to
improve
as
well.

11. 10
My
perspective
about
my
team
has
changed
over
time.
When
I
first
joined
the
team
I
just
wanted
to
learn
the
basics
of
volleyball
and
make
some
new
friends.
Now,
as
I
am
a
senior,
I
really
want
the
team
to
run
smoothly,
and
for
team
members
to
learn
to
help
each
other
to
improve
their
game.
I
guess
that
it’s
natural
to
feel
this
way
as
I
get
older
and
begin
to
feel
a
sense
of
responsibility
towards
the
team.
However,
I
think
the
sempai-­‐kohai
system
is
also
really
important
to
help
the
team
run,
both
day
to
day
and
also
in
the
future.
Reflection:
Similar
to
this
case
study,
let’s
explore
each
of
these
dimensions
of
culture,
thinking
about
your
own
culture.
First,
let’s
talk
briefly
about
the
different
types
of
groups
that
you
belong
to.
Then,
let’s
choose
one
of
those
groups
and
talk
about
it
in
more
depth,
exploring
the
people
(who),
products
(what),
practices
(how),
and
perspectives
(why)
of
that
group.
Communities:
Which
groups
do
you
belong
to?
Think
of
your
school,
your
school
club
or
circle,
your
religious
group
or
church,
your
family,
your
friendship
group(s),
and
other
groups.
Of
these
groups,
which
groups
were
you
born
into,
and
which
have
you
(or
your
family)
chosen
to
join?
Choose
one
group
which
you
belong
to
(the
rest
of
the
discussion
is
about
this
group):
a)
Give
a
brief
introduction
and
history
of
that
group.
b)
Who
are
members
of
that
group?
Are
there
core
members
and
peripheral
members?
Who
are
they,
and
how
are
they
different?
c)
What
are
the
core
members’
identifying
features?
For
example,
what
is
their
age,
gender,
ethnicity
and
first
language(s),
socio-­‐economic
background,
looks
and
fashion,
abilities,
attitudes,
language
use,
and
so
on?
d)
How
do
you
become
a
member
of
that
group?
How
can
you
leave
that
group?
People:
a)
Within
that
group,
who
are
you?
Which
role(s)
do
you
play?
How
have
those
roles
changed?
c)
What
is
a
‘successful’
member
of
that
group?
Why
do
you
think
so?
d)
Introduce
one
other
person
from
that
group.
e)
Draw
a
relationship
map
of
the
group.
How
have
roles
changed
over
time?
Products:
a)
What
are
some
of
the
tangible
products
(or
artifacts)
that
the
group
uses
when
it
is
together,
that
have
a
particular
meaning
for
the
group?
How
have
they
changed
over
time?
b)
Who
decides
which
products
to
use,
and
how
to
use
them?
c)
What
are
some
of
the
key
physical
settings
–
the
places
where
your
group
meets?
How
are
they
decided?
How
have
they
changed
over
time?
d)
Let’s
focus
specifically
on
symbols.
Does
your
group
use
any
particular
symbols
to
represent
meanings?
What
are
the
symbols,
and
what
do
they
mean?
Who
chose
(or
chooses)
them?
Practices:
a)
What
are
some
of
the
key
practices
of
the
group
–
the
things
that
members
of
your
group
usually
do
when
they
are
together?
How
is
this
decided?
How
does
this
change
over
time?
b)
Are
there
any
practices
that
you
consider
to
be
a
ritual?
c)
What
are
some
of
the
things
that
the
people
in
your
group
regularly
say
to
each
other
that
might
mark
membership
of
that
group?
How
is
this
decided?
How
does
this
change
over
time?
d)
What
are
the
taboos
in
your
group?
What
happens
when
someone
breaks
them?
Perspectives:
a)
At
the
moment,
what
are
one
or
two
issues
that
are
very
important
to
your
group?
How
do
the
people
in
your
group
think,
feel
and
talk
about
them?
b)
Underlying
these
issues,
what
do
you
think
are
the
group’s
values?
That
is,
what
do
people
think
is
important
and
unimportant?
Good
and
bad?

12. 11
Theoretical
Perspective
Many
theories
have
been
created
to
explain
culture:
here
are
three
important
ones
–
functionalism,
conflict
theory,
and
ethnomethodology.
Functionalism:
Functionalism
sees
societies
as
being
basically
stable.
Society
is
divided
into
groups,
and
each
group
plays
a
different
role
or
‘function’
to
maintain
social
stability.
For
example,
schools
teach
children
learning
and
social
skills,
universities
further
human
knowledge
and
understanding,
the
police
and
the
court
system
make
society
safe,
and
markets
act
smoothly
to
provide
the
goods
and
services
a
modern
society
needs.
Shared
values
are
the
basis
for
a
society.
Societies
usually
change
very
slowly
through
‘evolution.’
Conflict
Theory:
Conflict
theory
is
diametrically
opposed
to
functionalism
–
it
argues
that
functionalism
is
naïve
and
serves
the
interests
of
groups
that
already
have
power.
Rather,
societies
are
not
stable;
they
are
always
changing.
The
basis
of
society
is
not
shared
values
but
the
competition
for
power.
Power
is
always
scarce,
unequal,
and
coercive.
Groups
form
in
society
to
represent
and
help
their
members.
To
succeed,
groups
need
power,
so
one
purpose
of
groups
is
to
get
and
maintain
power.
Power
and
resources
are
limited,
so
groups
are
always
competing
or
‘conflicting’
with
other
groups
to
obtain
as
much
power
as
possible.
Ethnomethodology:
Functionalism
and
conflict
theory
focus
on
the
macro-­‐level
of
society;
ethnomethodology
works
at
the
micro-­‐level
of
society,
seeking
to
understand
how
groups
are
created
and
maintained
through
their
use
of
symbols,
rituals,
and
rules.
It
researches
how
groups
influence
its
members’
identity,
behavior
and
ideas
by
observing
and
interviewing
people,
recording
conversations
and
interactions,
and
reading
and
analyzing
documents.
Fieldwork
draws
upon
all
three
main
theories:
functionalism
and
conflict
theory
frame
fieldwork
in
terms
of
broader
cultural
influences
and
explain
why
cultures
and
communities
behave
and
believe
as
they
do
(the
‘why’
of
fieldwork),
whereas
ethnomethodology
informs
actual
fieldwork
practices
(the
‘how’
of
fieldwork).
In
both
cases,
theory
is
a
guide
to
practice.